The Nine Domes Mosque - Arts and Architecture Under Abbasids

The Nine domed mosques, located on the western edge of Thakur Dighi, built-in 925, locally is considered to have belonged to the ancient kings of Khan Jahan Ali's style of Khalifatabad, Baggerhat, Bangladesh. However, local tradition has it that the building belonged to one of Khan Jahan's officials who lived near the same bank of the Thakurdighi bank. The mosque is located less than half a mile from the southwest of the Khan Jahan Ali Tomb-Complex. Depending on the style of construction the date of construction can be estimated to be in the middle of the fifteenth century. The mosque is a square mosque of the Sultanate type; that is, a square building is crowned with nine houses. 

The small mosque is lined with nine low-rise buildings, which are supported by four small stone pillars. It has arched penetration in all but the western facade. The western wall or qibla wall has three mihrabs, the middle being very large. The chain-and-bell terra cotta motifs adorn the center of each mihrab. The circular towers are lined with eight molding belts and the outer walls have long vertical panels ending at the pointed arches under the curved cornice.

The mosque is a 60'4 "x 60'4" square outside while the inside has a 39'6 "x 39'6" square design. The building is a single room, the interior of which is divided into nine equal grid roofs with nine country houses. The east, north, and south facades have three arched openings in the prayer hall. There are three mihrabs, each facing three doors east and the middle half of the qibla wall shown west from floor to ceiling. In style, this type is known as the construction of Khan Jahan Ali, which is found mainly in the southern and western part of Bangladesh.

The square building is lined with circular towers in a large corner. These bells end at the level of the parapet walls and are bound in the traditional manner of the Bengali Sultanate. The facades are lined with curvilinear cornices of the pre-Mughal type. The exterior façades have a clear brick texture with a framed opening built with horizontal lines of terracotta designs. All the doors are almost the same width while the middle ones are slightly higher. There are three types of terracotta mihrabs on the qibla wall; the middle is slightly larger than the sides. All three mihrabs are adorned with numerous cut arches and terracotta details.

The mosque was restored and renovated by the Department of Archeology, Bangladesh, and is now a protected monument.

Architecture of Ottoman

 

The great tradition of Ottoman architecture, founded in the 16th century, was derived from two main sources. One was the complex development of new types of construction that took place throughout Anatolia, especially in Manisa, Iznik, Bursa, and Selçuk in the 14th and early 15th centuries. In addition to the usual mosques, mausoleums, and madrasahs, many buildings called tekke were built to houses and other holy men living together. Itkeke was usually assembled in a mosque or cemetery. The whole complex at that time was called külliye. All these buildings continued to build a central, centralized structure, built by the Seljuqs in Anatolia. Another source of Ottoman architecture is Christian art. Byzantine culture, especially as it was incorporated into Hagia Sophia, became a major source of encouragement. Byzantine influence comes from elements such as stones and bricks used together or in the use of circular dome construction. Also influential in the arts were the early Ottoman allies they had with Italy. Thus, in a number of military bases in Bursa, Tur., There is a similarity in style to the exterior design and windows, gates, and roof elements found in Italian architecture. A distinctive feature of Ottoman architecture is that it originated in Islamic and European cultures and, therefore, was part of both.

The apogee of the Ottoman architecture was found in a large series of külliyes and the still dominant mosques in Istanbul: Fatih külliye (1463-70), Bayezid Mosque (after 1491), Selim Mosque (1522), Sehzade külliye (1548), and Süleyman külliye (after 1550). Sehzade and Süleyman külliyes were built by Sinan, a great Ottoman architect, whose masterpiece is the Selim Mosque in Edirne, Tur. (1569-75). All of these structures show complete clarity and logic in planning and ascent; every part is considered in relation to everything, and each element of construction has acquired a sequential function incomplete formation. Any unnecessary items have been removed. This ease of design in the late 15th and 16th centuries is often the result of the fact that the Sinan and many Ottoman builders were first trained as military engineers. Everything in these buildings was under a beautiful central dome. The low-rise type of downhill, vaults, and ascending ridges lead the eye up and down the outside of the building. Minarets, thin and bulky, incorporate an external structure, while the open space of the surrounding courts prevents the building from being swallowed up by the surrounding city. This Ottoman art is seen as the ultimate culmination of two great traditions: the artistic and aesthetic tradition that has been native to Istanbul since the founding of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and another Islamic tradition of the empire up to the 10th century.

While mosques and külliyes are the most important monuments of Ottoman architecture, important landmarks are erected: baths, caravans, and especially the great palace of Topkapi Saray in Istanbul, where 300 years of royalty are kept in its beautiful communities, halls, and fountains.

The Culture of Ottoman Empire

Ottoman culture flourished for centuries as the Turks' rulers suckled, transformed, and transformed the various indigenous cultures of the conquered lands and their peoples. There was a strong influence on the customs and languages ​​of Muslim communities, especially the Arabs, while Persian culture had a profound effect on the Persians of the Seljuq Turks, who were pre-Ottoman. Without further ado, the Ottoman Empire, like its predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, was thoroughly investigated by their culture, language, customs, and traditions, and therefore, the empire was described as a Persian empire. Throughout its history, the Turkish Empire had a large population of Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish, and Assyrian subjects, who were allowed to govern themselves under a united government. The Ottomans and their distinct cultures enrich those of the Ottoman Empire.

Literature:

Poetry :

Like all other forms of Turkish art, poetry produced by the Ottoman court circle has had a powerful influence from ancient Persian cultures; Ghazal) was used.

In the 19th century and during the conversion of the Tanzimat, the influence of Turkish folklore, up to that point, in particular, began to emerge in Turkish poetry, and there was a growing influence on European literature; there has been a corresponding decline in ancient court poems. Tevfik Fikret, born in 1867, is often regarded as the inventor of modern Turkish poetry.

Prose:

Prior to the 19th century, Ottoman prose was not only true but much more advanced than Ottoman poetry, in part because most of it followed the original rules of the Arab rhymed prose (Saj '). However, many genres - travelogue, political literature, and biography - were now available.

From the 19th century onward, the growing influence of European novels, especially those of the French novel, began to be felt. Şemsettin Sami's book Taaşuk-u Tal'at ve Fitnat, widely regarded as Turkey's first novel, was published in 1872; other Ottoman prose writers were Ahmet Mithat and Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil.

Architecture :

The Ottoman architecture was an integral part of the Iranian-influenced Seljuk architecture, as reflected in the Konya architecture, the Mamluk architecture, and the Byzantine architecture; reached its greatest development in major public buildings, such as mosques and caravans, in the 16th century.

A prominent figure in this field, the 16th-century designer and engineer Marimar Sinan, was a Muslim convert from Armenia who had knowledge of the Janissaries. One of his students, Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, designed the 17th-century Blue Mosque, which is considered to be the last major construction of ancient Ottoman architecture.

Decorative Arts :

Calligraphy :

Calligraphy had a respectable culture in the Ottomans, whose traditions were shaped by the work of the Abbasid calligrapher Yaqut al-Musta'simi of Baghdad, whose influence spread throughout the Muslim world, al-Musta'simi himself who was of Anatolian descent.

Diwani's script is a distinctive and vivid Ottoman style of Arabic calligraphy dating back to the 16th and early 17th centuries. Founded by Husam Roumi, it culminated in a major development under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520-66). The most decorative script is divided by the complexity of the line and the clear definition of the letters in the words. Other forms include the flowing, circular Nashki text, founded by the 10th Abbasid calligrapher Ali Muhammad ibn Muqlah, and Ta'liq, based on the Persian Nastalīq style.

Well-known Ottoman calligraphers include Seyid Kasim Gubari, Şeyh Hamdullah, Ahmed Karahisari, and Hâfiz Osma.

Miniatures :

The Ottoman culture of miniature painting, handwriting, or use of dedicated albums was largely influenced by Persian art form, although it also incorporated elements of Byzantine culture into lighting and painting.

Carpet-weaving and textile arts :

The art of weaving carpets was very important in the Ottoman Empire, carpets were very important as decorative items, rich in religious symbols, and so on, and as a practical consideration, as was the custom to remove shoes from the living space.  The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic traditions of central Asia and eventually spread to communities living in Anatolia. The Turks use patterned carpets, magazines, and creams not only on the floor of the room but also as hanging on walls and doors, where they provide additional installation. And they were often donated to the churches of the temples, where they usually collected their large collections

Jewelry :

The Ottoman Empire was known for the quality of its gold and silver carpenters, and especially for the jewelry, they produced. Jewelry was especially important when it came to weddings, such as wedding invitations. Silver was the standard used, and gold was reserved for high-quality pieces; designs often depicted complex work and included Persian and Byzantine paintings. Progress in construction reflected the Ottoman court's interest in the Persian Safavid art, which, for example, became influential after the defeat of Ottoman Ismail I after the Chaldiran war in 1514.  In the rural areas of the Empire, jewelry was simple and often included gold coins, but the formation of Constantinople spread throughout the Ottoman Empire and was reflected in the Egyptian and North African metals.

Introduction To Ottoman Empire - Arts And Architecture

Brief Introduction :

Forced to evacuate their homes on the plains of Asia by the Mongols, the migrating Turkish tribes converted to Islam during the eighth and ninth centuries. By the tenth century, one of the Turkish tribes, the Seljuks, had become a major power in the Islamic world and embraced a stable life that included Islamic teaching, middle class, and taxation. However, many other Turkish groups remained nomadic and, following the Blood tradition, sought to conquer the Islamic world and gain the spoils of war. This led to a confrontation with the Seljuks in Teljuk, and to appease the nomadic tribes, the Seljuks directed them to the eastern part of the Byzantine Empire, Anatolia. The nation known as the Ottomans emerged from one of the small thieves established in northwestern Anatolia after 1071. The monarchy was named after Osman Gazi (1259-1326), who began expanding his empire into the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor and moved to Bursa in 1326.

The Empire :

A political and local organization controlled by the Ottoman Turks. Their empire was centered in modern-day Turkey and increased its influence in southeastern Europe and the Middle East. Europe was only able to withstand their progress for a while: a change came at the Battle of Varna in 1444 when the European Union failed to stop Turkey's progress. Only Constantinople (Istanbul) occupied Byzantine territory, and its defeat in 1453 seemed inevitable. The Turks regained control of Anatolia and southeastern Europe, which lasted until the early 20th century.

Although the Ottoman Empire could not be considered a simultaneous European empire, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire had a profound impact on a continent already plagued by the tragedies of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the Ottoman Turks must, therefore, be considered in any European study by the end. of the Middle Ages. The simplicity of the Ottoman Empire gained from military victory led Western Europeans to fear that the continued success of the Ottoman Empire would bring down Western political and social infrastructure and bring about the fall of Christendom. Such a great threat could not be ignored and the Europeans invaded the Ottoman army in 1366, 1396, and 1444, but to no avail. The Ottomans continued to conquer new territories.

One of the many ethnic groups in Turkey that migrated from the plateau of central Asia, the Ottomans were originally nomadic peoples who followed the ancient shamanistic religion. Contact with various stable people led to the introduction of Islam and under the influence of Islam, the Turks acquired their greatest fighting tradition, that of the bloodthirsty warrior. Well-trained and highly skilled bloodthirsty heroes strive to conquer this believer, gain land and riches in it.

While the bloodthirsty warriors fought for Islam, the largest military property in the Ottoman Empire was a permanent paid army of Christian soldiers, the Janissaries. Originally created in 1330 by Orhan Gazi, the janissaries were Christian captives from conquered lands. Taught in Islam and trained as a soldier, court officials were forced to pay an annual tribute to the military. To meet the challenges of the bloodthirsty nobleman, Murad I (1319-1389) turned a new army into a Sultan's army. They were rewarded for their loyalty to the newly acquired land grants, and the magistrates soon rose to fill important administrative offices of the Ottoman Empire.

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire, political parties within Byzantium used Turkish Turks and military commanders as mercenaries in their war for supremacy. In the 1340's, an invasion of the Ottoman Empire led to the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire in Thrace on the northern border of the Byzantine Empire. The defeat of Thrace provided the Ottomans with a place in Europe where the next campaigns for the Balkans and Greece were established and Adrianople (Edirne) became the Ottoman capital in 1366. In the next century, the Ottomans formed the empire that took Anatolia again and again. large parts of Byzantine areas in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor.

The expansion of the Turkish Empire to Europe was in full swing in the late 14th century. Gallipoli was defeated in 1354 and a large army was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The tragedy was so great that Western troops were reluctant to start a new campaign against the Turks. The emergence of Tatars under Tamerlane in the early fifteenth century temporarily delayed Turkey's development but the Ottomans soon resumed invading Byzantium and Eastern Europe. Hungarian and Polish troops were assassinated in Varna in 1444 by Murad II and the Ottoman conquest was not stopped during the reign of his son, Mehmed II Conqueror (1432-1481).

Constantinople itself was captured in 1453, sending a shocking wave across Europe, and its name was changed to Istanbul. With the fall of Byzantium, a wave of Byzantine refugees fled to the West West, carrying ancient and Hellenistic knowledge that gave added impetus to the tense character of the Renaissance.

Athens fell in 1456 and Belgrade narrowly escaped captivity during the Hungarian-led poor Janos Hunyadi's siege that same year, however, Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia, and the Crimean Cantate were all under the Ottoman rule in 1478. The Turks demanded that the Black Sea and the northern Aegean and that many trade routes be closed when European ships were shipped. The Islamic threat was even greater when the Ottoman beachhead was established in Otranto, Italy, in 1480.

Although the Turkish presence in Italy was short-lived, it seemed that Rome itself should fall into the hands of the Muslims. By 1529, the Ottomans had invaded the Danube and besieged Vienna. The siege was unsuccessful and the Turks began to retreat. Although the Ottomans continued to cause panic during the 16th century, internal strife began to undermine the once-mighty military power of the Ottoman Empire. The outcome of the battles was over and the Europeans began to gain points for the Turks' victory.

Despite the military success of the expansion of their territory, there were still organizational and governmental problems within the Ottoman Empire. Murad II attempted to limit the influence of the nobility and blood by elevating slaves and janissaries to positions of responsibility. These rulers came to give another voice to that of the nobles and, as a result, Murad II and successive Sultans were able to play one team against another, a feature that would suit the Ottoman Empire. The power of the janissaries' rulers often overshadowed the weak sultan and the elite army occasionally acted as "king's servants".

Another weakness was that primogeniture was not used in Islam and that the transfer of power from the deceased to his son was often opposed. When the Sultan died without a male heir or left several sons, the succession was violently opposed. In the first instance, to prevent further controversy, all male relatives of the newly crowned sultan were assassinated. Later, however, former rivals were arrested for life. Some historians have noted that this policy of imprisonment contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire as mentally and politically unstable individuals were released from prison and placed on the throne. However, in addition to the usual succession issues, the Ottoman Empire was able to produce effective leaders by the end of the Middle Ages and a comprehensive government policy was developed.

Despite the difficulties of succession and administrative control, the Ottomans had many advantages that contributed to their success, the great wealth of the State being the most valuable asset. As the Ottoman Empire grew, it gained control of trade routes to the East, and many European powers, such as Venice and Genoa, paid exorbitant fees to access these routes.

Although the brutality of the "Infidel Turk" brought fear into the hearts of all Christians toward the end of the Middle Ages, the Ottomans generally allowed religious groups to continue their practice in the conquered lands. They also tend to maintain established institutions and, in many cases, allow for the co-existence of racial and religious law codes. Their administrative and government systems were well developed and very efficient and many countries under Ottoman rule were well-governed during this time.

Architecture of Hagia Sophia - Istanbul - Turkey

 Hagia Sophia is a former basilica, later a mosque, then Museum, Now again converted into Mosque in 2020. Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the essence of Byzantine Architecture and one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. It was designed by two architects Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. 

In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans, the Turks, and Sultan Mehmed II, who ordered the building to be converted to Islam. The idols, the altar, the iconostasis, and the sacrificial vessels were removed, and most of the stone objects were eventually attached. Islamic features, such as the four outer minarets, the mihrab, and the minbar, have been added to the continuation of its history under the Ottomans. It remained as a mosque until 1935 when it was converted into a museum by an international republic of the Republic of Turkey.

Hagia Sophia

For nearly 500 years Istanbul's main mosque, Hagia Sophia served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the Sehzade Mosque, the Squeemaniye Mosque, and the Pasha Pasha Mosque.

Architecture :

Hagia Sophia is one of the heaviest examples of Byzantine architecture, both architectural and religious. Its broad nave is covered with a medium-sized upper bone made of pendentives. Pandentives form possible dome support on a square frame of equal arches that reside on large pillars. The arches at east and west are extended by great half domes, while the half domes, in turn, carried on smaller semi domed exedrae. 

Architecture

At the east end of the temple house, there is a storehouse on the west and finally on the west a large narthex. Surrounding the nave to the north and south are sidewalks with porches above them. Their massive vaults, carried at both levels by columns of green and white marble.

Dome :

The vast nave is covered by a central dome which has a maximum diameter of 31.24 meters and a height from the floor level of 55.60 meters. The dome looks weightless with an endless arcade of 40 windows below it, helping to flood the colorful interior with light.

Dome

The dome is made of the pendant, the four triangular stone structures that solve the problem of laying a circular base of the dome on a rectangular base. In Hagia Sophia, the weight of the dome passes from the pendant to the four main poles in the corners. Among them, the dome appears to run over four huge arches.

All interiors surfaces are sheathed with polychrome marbles, green and white with purple and gold mosaics, covered on the brick. On the exterior, simple stucco walls reveal the clarity of massed vaults and domes.

Interior of Dome

Minarets :

One of the Minarets was built from red brick while the other three were built from white limestone and sandstone.

Minarets

Lustration Urns :

Two huge marble lustration urns were brought from Pergamon during the reign of Sultan Murad III. Stemming from the Hellenistic period, they are carved from single blocks of marble.

Narthex and Portals :

The Imperial Gate was the main entrance between the exo- and exonarthex. It was reserved only for the emperor. The Byzantine mosaic above the portal depicts Christ and an unnamed Emperor. A long ramp from the northern part of the outer narthex leads up to the upper gallery.

Upper Gallery :

The upper gallery is laid out in a horseshoe shape the encloses the nave until the apse. Several mosaics are preserved in the upper gallery, an area traditionally reserved for the empress and her court.

 Loge of the Empress :

The loge of the empress is located in the center of the upper enclosure, or gallery, of the Hagia Sophia. From there the empress and the court ladies would watch the proceedings down below. A round, green stone marks the spot where the throne of the empress stood.

Marble Door :

The marble door inside the Hagia Sophia is located in the southern upper enclosure or gallery. It was used by the participants in synods, they entered and left the meeting chamber through this door.

Decorations :

Originally the interior decoration consisted of abstract designs of the marble slab on the walls and mosaics on the curving vaults. There were already figurative decorations. The spandrels of the gallery are revetted in opus sectile. showing patterns and figures of flowers and birds in a cut piece of white marble, set again the background of black marble.

Mosaics:

Imperial gate mosaic located in the tympanum above the gate used only by the emperors when entering the church. It represented the emperor Leo VI bowing down before Christ Pantocrator, giving His blessing and holding in his left hand an open book. These mosaics express the timeless power bestowed by Christ on the Byzantine emperors.

Southwestern entrance mosaics, situated in the tympanum of the southwestern eastern, date from 944.

They were rediscovered during the restorations of 1849 by Fassati. The Virgin sits on a throne without a back, her feet resting on a base, embellished with precious stones. The child christ sits on her lap, giving His blessing and holding a scroll in His left hand.

Empress Zoe mosaics on the eastern wall of the southern gallery date from the 11th century. Following the building converted into a mosque in 1453, many of its mosaics were destroyed or covered with plaster, due to Islam's ban on representational imagery. This process was not completed at once, and reports exist from the 17th century.

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Topkapi Palace - Istanbul - Turkey

 Upon conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II ordered the building of a monastery on the site of the fourth-century theater of Emperor Theodosius I. With the completion of the palace at Beyazit, work began on a new palace in the seraglio area. The New Imperial Palace is known today as the Topkapi Palace. It is located at the top of a hill at the end of the historic peninsula where the waters of Marmara, Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn meet. The Topkapi Palace was restored in the 1950s by the management of the Topkapi Palace Museum and is open to visitors.

Topkapi Palace

The Palace Structure :

The first court is entered through the Imperial Gate on the fortress, across from the Church of Hagia Sophia. The entrance of the 2nd court is through the middle gate, or the salutation or Bab-ul-salam that was built by Mehmed II. The gate was renovated by Murad II in the late 16th century and no longer has its original gilded doors or portico.

The third court houses the palace of school for pages, the sultan's headquarters, and his treasury. it is entered through the gate of Felicity.

Small passages between the Hall of Treasury and the Department of the Pantry lead into the Fourth court, a loose collection of Kiosks built on three levels. 

Architectural Characteristics :

1. Imperial Gate :

The massiveness of this stone gate emphasizes its defensive character. Its central arch leads to a high-doomed. Guilded Ottoman Calligraphy adorns the structure at the top, with verses from the Holy Quran and Tughras of the Sultans.

2.First Courtyard :

The exterior of glazed bricks shows a Central Asian influence, especially from the Bibi-Khanum Mosque in Samarkand. The square, the axial plan represents the four corners of the world and symbolizes, in architectural terms, the universal authority of the Sultan. As there is no Byzantine influence, the building is ascribed to an unknown Persian architect. The stone framed brick and the polygonal pillars of the facade are typical of Persia.

3.Gate of Salutation :

This gate has two large octagonal pointed towers. The date of construction of this gate is not clear, since the architecture of towers in Byzantine influence rather than Ottoman. The gate is richly decorated on both sides and in the upper part with religious and monograms of Sultans.

4.Second Courtyard :

Numerous artifacts from the Roman and Byzantine periods have been found on the palace site during recent excavations. These include sarcophagi, baptismal fonts, parapet slabs, and pillars and capitals.

5. Harem:

The harem wing was only added at the end of the 16th century. Many of the rooms and features in the Harem were designed by Sinan. The harem was decorated again under the sultans Mahmud I and Osman III in Italian inspired Ottoman Baroque style. These decorations contrast with those of the Ottoman classical age.

6. Imperial Hall  :

The imperial Hall is also known as the Imperial Sofa, Throne Room within or Hall of Diversions is a domed hall in the Harem, believed to have been built in the late 16th century , It has the largest coming in the palace. After the great Harem fire of 1666, the hall was renovated in the rococo style during the reign of Sultan Osman III.

7. Fountains of Sultan Ahmed III :

The great square fountains are Rocco building in front of the palace gate that was built under Sultan Ahmed III in 1728. It was a social centre and gathering place. Each of the four facades contains a drinking fountain, flanked by niches and decorated in low relief with floral design.

Islamic Calligraphy Art - Contemporary scripts

 The most important scripts known to calligraphers today are following

• Kufic
• Naskhi
• Thuluth
• Diwani
• Taliq

Kufic :

The name Kufic derives from the town of  Kufah. The name has been attached to many forms of the early script as well as several varieties of script known to contemporary calligraphers.it is sufficient for us to know that Kufic today is used to designate any of the basically angular scripts. This was the main type of script used in all parts of the Muslim world for the Quran and epigraphy until the 12th century. The early Quran of the 3rd and 4th, 9th, and 10th centuries often have heavy kufi lettering with short verticals and exaggerated horizontals. Somewhat later example of Kufi script more often emphasize the verticals. As variant styles proliferated were often treated to elaborate painting techniques or were combined with architectural and other motifs.

Naskhi :

The singular importance of the Kufi typescripts, for decoration of manuscripts and other artwork, was not to last for long. Within 3 or 4 centuries the popularity of the various forms of rounded scripts had been established. Rounded scripts had been available from the first centuries of Islam, but it took some time before they gained acceptance and esteem as artistic lettering types.

Naskhi is a scribe script used for books and especially for copying the Quran. It owes its name to its association with the copying of books.

Thuluth :

Thuluth is another form of Islamic calligraphy art, but it is different in other characteristics and in function from Naskhi, with which it is often confused, or of which it is mistakenly taken to be variety. A much more likely explanation is that which accords such names to the different sized scripts which corresponds to various paper size n  which they were used. The largest paper size was tumar. This paper was 24 animal hairs in width. Thuluth was a script fitting a paper size of ''one third '' that size, i.e. 8 hairs in width.

Thuluth has been used in a great variety of artistic creations in literary manuscripts and architectural monuments as well as in the production of small art objects. it was used in all parts of the Muslim world for elaborate arabesque decoration. It is also prominent in non-literary calligraphic decoration

Diwani :

It is Islamic calligraphic art that is so rounded that it might be described as the opposite of Kufi. It has no angles and emphasizes cursiveness. Diwani letters move straight across the page with non of the up and down positioning used in thuluth.

 The script has a tendency to turn upwards at the end of the line. Diwani is written with or without harakat and is usually small and compact. It is also the main script for the Tughra . In tughra , Diwani script often found in combination with thuluth elements.

Taliq:

It is another example of Islamic calligraphy art which has played an important role in Islamic art. There are no sharp angles in this script, no ornate flourishes, or extra decorations. commonly held to have originated in 13th century Iran, this script is used for copying poetry as well as prose. but it is rarely used for copies of the Quran or for the decoration of architectural or small movable art objects. It is a small and legible script in which a few letters have slightly altered forms. An elaborate variation of this script is supposed to b developed by Mir Ali the famous artist of Tabriz, in the early 15th century. It has been used primarily for non-Arabic Islamic languages. some attempts were made in the last 16th century to write the Quran in this style, but t never gained popularity as an Arabic script. it is usually written without harakat.

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Objects In Islamic Art - Techniques of Early Islamic Art

 Followings are the objects of early Islamic Art.

• Rock-cut crystals.
• Cut and engraved Glass.
• Millefiori
• Stained Glass.
• Etched Glass.
• Cast Glass.
• Tools of Glassmaking.
• The Blowpipe.

Rock-cut Crystals :

Rock crystals ewers are pitchers craved from a single block of rock crystal. They were made by Islamic Fatimid artisans and are considered to be amongst the rarest object in Islamic art. Great skill was required to hollow out the raw rock crystal without breaking it and to carve the delicate, often very shallow, decoration.

Rock cut crystals

Cut and Engraved Glass :

Cold-cut glass became the most prominent art form of decoration in the early Islamic period, especially in the 9th and 10th  centuries. While this lapidary technique is as old as glass making itself, dating well before glassblowing was invented; Roman and Sasanian cut glass provided immediate models. From Egypt to Iran, Islamic cut and engraved decoration took various forms. ranging from complex relief patterns created using mechanically operated wheels and drills to hair width incisions made with a pointed tool.

Cut and Engraved glass

Millefiori :

Taken from the Italian words ''mille'' and ''fiori'' beads using this ancient Venetian technique are aptly named ''a thousand flowers ''. Prior to the term millefiori being used to describe it. This glasswork technique was simply called mosaic. The ancient Romans, Phoenicians, and Alexandrians are thought to have been the originators of this art-form making Itlay the premier glass working center of the world. In the late 13th century Venetian glassmakers were ordered by the Venetian republic to move their foundries to the island of Murano.

                                       

                                        Millefiori 

The millefiori technique was rediscovered in the 8th or 9th century in Mesopotamia and was probably used in the production of objects for the ' Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad or Samarra. A number of surviving bowls and tiles suggest that it was used both for domestic furnishings and interior decoration. Examples such as these show the sophistication and range of Abbasid glassmakers.

Stained Glass :

The glass that has been colored, enameled, painted, or stained, especially by having pigments baked onto its surface or by having various metallic oxides fused into it a used in church windows, decorative lampshades. Stained glass is an art form in which colored glass is cut into shapes and placed into mosaics to form a picture. The glass is held in place by metal strips soldered together to give the stained glass strength and stability. Often, fine details of the scene are painted on the colored glass, which is then heated to bond the paint to the glass, and thereby 'stained'.

Stained Glass

Etched Glass :

It is the result of international and often artistic carrying of the surface of the glass to leave a white, frosted finish. This technique is used to create designs on the glass. Etched glass can be found in a wide variety of decorative contexts, including glass doors and windows, furniture, wine bottles, and serving dishes such as glass platters. There are three ways to create a piece of etched glass: sandblasting, chemical etching, and acid etching.

Cast Glass:

Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mold where it solidifies.

The process of casting glass in molds was invented in the mid 2nd millennium BC. Although the core-formed method predominated in glass manufacture in the Greek world, casting techniques also played an important role in the development of glass in the 9th to 4th centuries B.C. Cast glass was produced in two basic ways, through the lost-wax method, and with various open molds.

Tools of Glass Makers :

Since the invention of glassblowing in the 1st century B.C., glassmakers have been using the same tools to model, manipulate, and decorate the molten glass. Two mold forms from the medieval Islamic world are the only ones to survive, but the basic technology of nonindustrial glassmaking and the tools employed have not changed.

The blowpipe :

It is an iron or steel tube, usually about five feet long, for blowing the molten glass. Molds are used to impress decorative patterns on the molten glass. Dip molds have the typical form of the conical beaker, but two or three-part hinged molds were also used in the Islamic world.

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Seljuk Architecture - Arts and Architecture

 Seljuk Arts and Architecture in Persia, scarcely recognized as a distinct style before 1930, now comprises a repertoire of about fifty monuments and is increasingly regarded as one of the world's great architectural styles. A number of important monuments have been recorded within the last decade, still, many more come to light, Each discovery reveals new merits in structural inventiveness; double domes, ribs wider, vaults, taller minarets, and in decoration: stucco mihrabs, opulent and expressive overall arabesque networks, and in brick ornamentation patterns and bondings of infinite variety, vigor, and originality.

The power and nobility of Seljuk Arts and Architecture are doubtless best exemplified by the Masjid - i- Jami of Isfahan, one of the greatest buildings in the world. As a magnificent structure in a city chosen to be Persia's capital during widely separated epochs and under a variety of rulers, the Isfahan Jami is not purely Seljuk, but those portions which date from Seljuk times are yet is chief glories.

More than 900 years of Persian architecture revealed in this great mosque 20 distinct structures, varying in date from the 11th century. During its long history, it has been much fought over, repeatedly damaged, reconstructed, and all but ruined.

A four-iwan court is enclosed by arcades and two-story open galleries faced with mosaic faience on buff brick.  A deep iwan, embellished with especially strong faience revetments opens into a spacious domed sanctuary built, as the inscription state, by order of Nizam al Mulk at the beginning of MAli Shah's reign. Some of the earlier buildings are still visible, however, and it's probable that the lower section of this sanctuary itself dates from the late 10h century. The chamber supports a huge dome. The squinches are supported by huge cylindrical piers. The sanctuary is surrounded by arcades and corridors covered by an amazing variety of domical brick vaults. Frequently these vaults ret on columns that vary in date from pre-Seljuk to Safavid period. All of the iwans were rebuilt or redecorated on a Seljuk base, showing that the basic plan of the Jami existed during the Seljuk period.

Aesthetically, the most important unit in the Jami is the small but superlative north dome known as the Gunmbad - i - Kharka, dated 1088 and located at the opposite end of the central axis from the sanctuary. This is perhaps the most perfect dome known. In each corner, four small arched breaks form frames of Slender angle colonettes from the lower squinch extension. From Floor level, these colonettes lead the ee swiftly u to the typical tri-lobed squinch. The squinch itself is enclosed by a larger arch that, together with identical arches along the sidewalls, supports an octagonal ring of 16 shallow panels merged with the base of the dome.

All arch forms, including the dome, are of the same contour and constitute the key element of motif that, beginning in the corners, with successive comprehensive enclose one element within other until their multiplicity is resolved and merged in the dome. The dome is thus a culminating point in a vertically rising stream of force. 

There are some significant features of the building which are easily overlooked. The ceiling of the dome is ornamented by a huge cinquefoil in low relief which is assimilated to a five-pointed star. A section of these motifs penetrates at five spaced intervals from the periphery.

A beautiful little madrassa, the Hedariya is also in Qazvin, today incorporated into a large 19th-century mosque. Perhaps the finest Kufic inscription in relief in all Persia is in its stucco frieze. Its carved stucco mihrab is massively rich. The large Masjid I Jami at Qazvin is impressive by virtue of its serene sanctuary space, capped by a large dome. 

Several important Seljuk mosques, in the style of the Isfahan Jami, survive in relatively good condition: the Friday Mosques at Artisan, Zaware, and Gulpayagan and the shrine of Bayazid at Bistam, a brick minaret. The great Seljuk monuments of central Persia were rivaled by several structures built to the northeast, in Khurasan and the region of the Oxus. Of these, the gigantic RAbat-i-Malek Built before 1078  between Bukhara and Samarkand, is one of the most imposing ruins of the Islamic period. Only part of one wall of the Caravanserai remains. 

Sultan Sanger was buried at Merv mausoleum worthy of a noble and tragic figure. Constructed after his death in 1157 by devoted followers, this tomb is a solemn cubical chamber, about 90 feet high. The interlocking framework of the ribs seen on the interior seems to carry the weight of the dome but, in reality, it may be more decorative than structural. Brick latticework at the corners admitted light to the corridor around the base of the dome, further developing the tomb of Ismail Samanid. This mausoleum is the last, and one of the finest, examples of Seljuk Arts and Architecture.

The Seljuks - Arts And Architecture

 

Seljuk architecture, Nobel and powerful, structurally invented and sophisticated, was neither sudden nor accidental. Rather it was the culminating expressions of a Persian renaissance that had begun in the early tenth century with the Samanids. this renaissance reached its apex under the Seljuks.

Cultural Background :

''Seek ye Knowledge even unto china''  commanded the Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.W and next to prayer, learning was regarded as the most sacred, preferable even to unreasoned piety. The productive stimulation of different, snd often competing, society was steadily enlarging and energizing Islamic culture life and thought. Most significant was the appropriation and preservation of classical Greek culture. Through well-organized translations financed by Caliph Mamun, Greek Philosophy and science Became known in Persia. Galen, Plato, and Aristotle were assiduously studied in all leaders of Persian thoughts.

During the 10th century, however, Persia again produced its own constellation of poets, Philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, physical scientists, historians, and geographers most of them are brilliant, many of unequaled eminence, all with a high degree of originally, boldness, and cultural breadth. In comparison, the same years in Europe were dark indeed.

By far the most important element in the initiation of the native Persian revival was Firdawsi's poem Saha Nama, completed in 1010. One of the epics, it's entered immediately and permanently into the heart of the nation. In all of his 60,000 couplets he used no more than 984 Arabic expressions, the rest were purely Persian. He restored to the Persians the use of renovated magnificent language, created new confidence and patriotism.

The rulers, a number of the true scholars and even poets, rivaled each other in a patronizing poet, artists, and scholars. The honor of being a patron was regarded as the obligation of royalty and a valid claim to status and public esteem. The libraries of time tell the story of a widely shared culture, in which learning was revered. Sahib ibn Abba, vizir of the Buyids and successful ruler of most Persia before his death in 996, had a vast library of certainly more than 2000 volumes. Each mosque had a collection of books. The cadi of Nishapur designated a house with a library especially for the use of visiting scholars and even supplied them with living expenses. One famous library was complied by Abdul-ad dawla installed in a special building in Shiraz.

Both Buyid and Seljuk periods produced some of the most remarkable textiles ever achieved and the pottery, mostly from Nishapur and Samarkand, is among the finest ever made.

The second half of the 9th century saw the appearance of a number of encyclopedias and histories. The learned profession produced a number of great thinkers, components in many areas: Al Razi, physician, chemist, and physicist whose influence spread to make contained much valuable historical and even archeological material. He created a systematic star catalog, tables, and instruments. mathematics and astronomy were vigorously summarized in a Persian encyclopedia of 976, The key of the sciences, A group called the '' Brethren of sincerity'', published valuable commentaries.

Ibn Sina was a born mathematician, poet, and astronomers who made important contributions to physics and was one of the world's first great figures in medicine and his medical treatise were basic texts at Oxford as late as the 17th century.

Omar Khayyam was also an original philosopher and a great mathematician. He recognized 13 different forms of cubic equation in 1074. Al-Ghazali, a man of intellectual power, deep feeling, and utter dedications, was an outstanding poet and philosopher.

Into highly developed civilizations came the conquering Seljuks, an Iran- Turkish stock, Their leaders already familiar with the Persian culture established in Central Asia.

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Taj Mahal - Architecture In India

 Historical Background :

• Taj Mahal is a mausoleum complex built by Shah Jahan (1632-1643) in memory of his favorite wife, Arjumand Banu Begum better known by her title ''Mumtaz Mahal''.
• Construction of the building began shortly after Mumtaz's death.
• Today Taj Mahal is recognized as the most perfect building in the world.

Taj Mahal

Background :

• According to Islamic traditions, a woman that dies during children's birth gains the status of martyr.
• In 1631 Mumtaz passed away during the birth of her 14th child.
• According to legend, with her dying breath, she secures a promise from her husband to built for her, a mausoleum more beautiful than any the world had ever seen.
• 6 months after the death of his wife, Shah Jahan lays the foundation for a memorial near the river Jamna near his Palace in Agra.
• To satisfy his Artistic obsessions, vast quantities of white marble are mined from Rajhastahn and are carried 250 miles to the site of the Taj Mahal.
• The emperor reserves white marble for imperial building only.
• Red stone carted from Dehli.
• 20,000worker who labored over 20 years to build the monument.

Architectural Breakthrough :

• In Indian architecture, the trabeation system was widely used for the construction of temples.
• The Mughal introduce the concept of the arch to India and create very wide interior spaces.
• Although the essential style was Islamic, any of the details are Hindu/Indian.
• The Mughal introduced the use of ceramic tiles and precious stones for inlay work.

Engineering Breakthrough :

• The Taj Mahal was built next to the river Jumna.
• The Mughal Enginner's dug deep wells to below the water surface.
• These wells were filled up with vocals and mortar.
• On top of Well bases, the master builders erected stone columns, linked together by massive arches.
• This engineering innovation has been protecting the Taj Mahal from the currents of the Jumna river to date.

Minarets Optical illusion :

• The minarets of the Taj Mahal built to lean slightly outwards.
• Depending on each other, they look perfectly straight.
• This brings a massive advantage.

Dome :

• Today we can build a dome-like Taj Mahal using steel frames and other materials.
• The master builders of the Taj Mahal had to solve this problem in stone.
• They Laid stone on stone and built up the stone in rings.
• The dome rises layer by layer.
• The mortar between the stones gives its stability.

Design Components :

Minarets :

The tomb of Shah Jaha's own father provides the model for minarets.

Minarets

Corner Turrets:

Shah Jahan great grandfather. Akbar tomb had four corner turrets surrounding the central core.

Pishtaq :

The four Pishtaq is inspired by his grandfather Tomb.

Dome :

The dome is inspired by Ulugh Beg Madrasa in Samarkand.

Inside Dome

Religious Symbolism :

Taj Mahal is the architectural embodiment of this life and the next according to Islamic belief.

The ground plan represents this duality of life and the afterlife.

The complex is split between its tomb garden and mausoleum.

Colour Scheme :

The color scheme of the Taj Mahal is deeply symbolic.

The worldly elements and other buildings are all clad in red stone.

The pure white stands for the Spiritually and faith of the person buried here.

The Garden :

The Garden is the heart of the Taj Mahal.

It is an earthly representation of paradise described in the Quran.

The garden is divided into four squares.

Chahar Bagh

The channels along the paths represent the river of paradise milk, honey, wine, and water mentioned in the Quran.

Where the channels meet, there is a pool.

European Influence:

The Taj Mahal itself demonstrates the link between India and Europe.

Technique and Motifs traveled from Europe to adorn the entire interior of the Taj Mahal.

These mosaics of semi-precious stones are called Pietra dura.

Pietra Dura

This craft was used to decorate precious places during the renaissance.

This technique directly or indirectly traveled from Italy to India.

Unfortunately, no chronicles record the name of the artist who decorated the Taj Mahal.

Burial Chamber :

The coffin seen in the Mausoleum is only a cenotaph an empty monument.

Mumtaz Mahal lies in a secret marble chamber below the Taj Mahal, where she rests undistributed.

Here is the view of the Taj Mahal :

Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula - Architecture In India

Itmad-ad-daula was the little bestowed upon Mirza Ghiyas Beg by emperor Jehangir.

According to Persian descent, Mirza Ghiyaz Beg became the first wealthy and became Prime Minister under Emporer Jehangir.

His daughter, Nur Jahan, later married the emperor and sent a mausoleum to honor his father's memory at his death in 1622 AD

Itimad-ud-daula and his wife are buried in the central chamber, his brother and sister and other members of his family occupy the four corners.

The Mausoleum was commenced in 1622 A.D and complete in 1628 A.D.

Many artifacts of the tomb symbolize the Taj Mahal.

Itmad-ud-din Daula was the first Mughal building to be completely enclosed with marble and heavily used in Pietra dura, a marble installation associated with the Taj Mahal.

Architectural Features:

The Tomb of modest scale, built on low lt form that is 4 feet high.

It has a square plan measuring  68'- 10', subdivided into 9 chambers, with 4 corner octagonal towers in form of minarets.

The kiosks of minarets consist of small hemispherical cupolas resting on small arches supported by 8 pilasters.

The roof pavilions impart a distinct  Hindu feel in its use of Bengali roof , completed by wide overhang, or eaves

Sandstone pathways lead up to the main tomb.

Each facade has a central arched entrance, flanked by two arches that are filled by beautiful marble screens.

Fine corbels support a marble tracery running along its length.

The platform and tomb are embellished with mosaics and Pietra and pietra dura inlay work of stone. 

Inlay marble art was practiced for many years, but this was the first attempt to imitate Persian Persian ornaments and tile work.

The interior is a series of rooms and corridors arranged around a verandah that contains the central chamber containing cenotaph.

The square roof Pavillion above the central chamber allows the light to filter down through its marble screen to washover the two yellow cenotaphs of Itimad ud Daua and his wife.

Muqarana squinches decorate the soffits of corner chambers and the main hall.

The surface above the dados has regularly distributed niches, alcoves, and decorative panels that allow for variation in decoration.

Fatehpur Sikri - Agra - Architecture In India

• Fathepur Sikri is a Palace complex, built by the Mughal Emperor Abar in 1571- 1585 A.D.
• One of the well-known Architecture in India.
• The palace building is located on a hillside about 100 feet [40 m] above the artificial lake.
• Akbar is responsible for the use of residence veneer, which gives the complex its characteristics hue.
• There were two main stages in the construction of this building.
• 1572 to 15757 A.D., when the main building was raised and finished.
• 15757 to 1585, when passage and corridor added to building according to the need of the emperor and his family.
• The complex served as the residence of the emperor for 14 years. in 1585 A.D. following a political and geographical shift of the empire, Akbar and his court satisfied transferred their residence to Lahore.

Architectural Features :

The following are the Architectural features of Fatehpur Sikri, Architecture in India.

1. Market.
2. Shop lined road.
3. Karkhana or workshop.
4. Octagonal Baoli.
5. Hiran Minar.
6. Hathipul or Elephant gate.
7. Daulat kahana (aam o Khas) or Diwan e Khas.
8. Kawabghah.
9. Daftar Khana.
10. Hammam.
11. Courtyard of panch MAhal.
12. Jadh Bai Palace.
13. Raja Birbal house.
14. Serai.
15. Courtyard of Jami mosque.
16. Jami mosque.
17. Tomb of Saikh salim chishti.
18. Tomb of Isa khan.
19. Buland Darwaza.

• It is situated on a long narrow ridge of Redstone that runs southwest to northeast.
• The building inside the complex is rotated 45 degrees.
• It is surrounded by enclosed walls that enclose the irregular place by about 2 miles and 1 mile long.
• The whole complex is spread in the three Plates.
• The mosque complex is located on the uppermost level of the ride and consists of a great mosque. The palace complex is laid out on the two lower platforms, covering 250 m sq.
• The building of the complex can be grouped into two main zones.
• The middle plateau is most private, housing the residential buildings, Birbal palace, Jodh Bai palace, Shahi Bazar, and Mina Bazar.Other buildings such as caravanserai, the Hiran Minar tower, hammam.
• The dominant material used is red stone.
• The building can be divided into two classes, the Religious and the secular.

Jami Mosque :

• The Jami Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri, Architecture in India, was built by Akbar in 1571.
• It covers a rectangular area measuring 542 X 438 and a large yard.
• The mosque follows the standard plan form with the central courtyard.
• The sanctuary facade consists of a large rectangular Pishtaq in the center.
• Above and behind these central features rises a large dome over the central nave.
• Arrange pillared kiosks all along the entire parapet.
• The nave is a square hall entered through three doorway.
• The aisles are accessible by highways from the nave. In the center of each hallway is a small church building, covered with one of the two smaller domes.

Buland Darwaza :

• Buland Darwaza is a gateway built by Akbar about 25 years after the Jami Mosque.
• The gateway is 134' high and 42 steps.
• The structure is 130' wide and 123' deep.
• The facade is embowed by the means of 3 planes comprising a large central face and a lesser one on each side.

Buland Darwaza from Inside

• The central plane is 86' wide and rectangular in shape.
• The smaller planes are in three kevels varied opening at each stage. The main feature of the decorative treatment of the exterior facade is the wide border of the gate.

Tomb of  Salim Chishti :

• It is located in the courtyard of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Originally a sandstone structure, it was transformed into an expensive marble structure.
• The tomb consists of a 24-sided square exterior of the '16-sided chamber', all covered by a lower dome.
• A wide verandah is carried out the outside.
• There are carved brackets all around to support the extremely wides eaves.
• The pillars that make up the porch with their honeycomb capitals.

Jodh Bai Palace :

• Jodh Bai palace is a structure built as the house of the principle, Queen.
• Mariam was a Hindu, and the palace in all its construction and all its ornamentations belongs to the Hindu and Jamia style of Mariam's native country, Rajputra, It even contains a Hindu temple.
• The palace in plan measure 215' X 320', consisting of a large central courtyard.
• To the left of the door is a small guardhouse.
• The external hall is 32' high plan.
• The outer part of the wall is disturbed only three times, once by the east gatehouse, the Pavillion hanging from the Hawa Mahal.
• One of the most interesting features is the Hawa Mahal, Here the ladies enjoy the cool breeze and the view of the lake.

Birbal's House :

• Raja Birbal was a Barhaman, who came to Akbar's court at the beginning of his reign.
• From the construction, it would appear that h the Hindu were the architects.
• Birbal's house s a two-story structure.
• The ground story is made up of two rooms and an open terrace.
• The upper rooms are covered with cupolas while the galleries have a pyramidal roof.

Diwan-i- Khas :

• The Diwan-i-Khas or a hall of a private audience is the most distinctive of the administration building at the Fatehpur, Architecture In India.
• It is not a large structure, Externally, the structure is rectangular in plan with two-story.
• The interior arrangement is quite unique.
• From the platform, a stone bridge radiates along each diagonal of the hall to connect with hanging galleries that surrounded its upper portion.
• The idea behind the arrangement is that the emperor would occupy the central position.

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