Topkapi Palace - Istanbul - Turkey

 Upon conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II ordered the building of a monastery on the site of the fourth-century theater of Emperor Theodosius I. With the completion of the palace at Beyazit, work began on a new palace in the seraglio area. The New Imperial Palace is known today as the Topkapi Palace. It is located at the top of a hill at the end of the historic peninsula where the waters of Marmara, Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn meet. The Topkapi Palace was restored in the 1950s by the management of the Topkapi Palace Museum and is open to visitors.

Topkapi Palace

The Palace Structure :

The first court is entered through the Imperial Gate on the fortress, across from the Church of Hagia Sophia. The entrance of the 2nd court is through the middle gate, or the salutation or Bab-ul-salam that was built by Mehmed II. The gate was renovated by Murad II in the late 16th century and no longer has its original gilded doors or portico.

The third court houses the palace of school for pages, the sultan's headquarters, and his treasury. it is entered through the gate of Felicity.

Small passages between the Hall of Treasury and the Department of the Pantry lead into the Fourth court, a loose collection of Kiosks built on three levels. 

Architectural Characteristics :

1. Imperial Gate :

The massiveness of this stone gate emphasizes its defensive character. Its central arch leads to a high-doomed. Guilded Ottoman Calligraphy adorns the structure at the top, with verses from the Holy Quran and Tughras of the Sultans.

2.First Courtyard :

The exterior of glazed bricks shows a Central Asian influence, especially from the Bibi-Khanum Mosque in Samarkand. The square, the axial plan represents the four corners of the world and symbolizes, in architectural terms, the universal authority of the Sultan. As there is no Byzantine influence, the building is ascribed to an unknown Persian architect. The stone framed brick and the polygonal pillars of the facade are typical of Persia.

3.Gate of Salutation :

This gate has two large octagonal pointed towers. The date of construction of this gate is not clear, since the architecture of towers in Byzantine influence rather than Ottoman. The gate is richly decorated on both sides and in the upper part with religious and monograms of Sultans.

4.Second Courtyard :

Numerous artifacts from the Roman and Byzantine periods have been found on the palace site during recent excavations. These include sarcophagi, baptismal fonts, parapet slabs, and pillars and capitals.

5. Harem:

The harem wing was only added at the end of the 16th century. Many of the rooms and features in the Harem were designed by Sinan. The harem was decorated again under the sultans Mahmud I and Osman III in Italian inspired Ottoman Baroque style. These decorations contrast with those of the Ottoman classical age.

6. Imperial Hall  :

The imperial Hall is also known as the Imperial Sofa, Throne Room within or Hall of Diversions is a domed hall in the Harem, believed to have been built in the late 16th century , It has the largest coming in the palace. After the great Harem fire of 1666, the hall was renovated in the rococo style during the reign of Sultan Osman III.

7. Fountains of Sultan Ahmed III :

The great square fountains are Rocco building in front of the palace gate that was built under Sultan Ahmed III in 1728. It was a social centre and gathering place. Each of the four facades contains a drinking fountain, flanked by niches and decorated in low relief with floral design.

Functions of Islamic Calligraphy Art in Islamic Culture

 There are many functions in Islamic calligraphy art in Islamic culture.

1. Quranic.

2. Poetry.

3. Architectural decoration.

4. Wall decoration

5. Numismatics.

6. Religious and administration documents.

7. Single decoration Album pages.

8. Tughra.

9. Ornamental inscriptions on small objects.

1. Quranic :

Probably the most important function for decorative writing in Islamic culture is that producing copies of the Holy Quran. Not only is the actual text executed in beautiful and legible writing, but many decorative additions are often combined with text.

Quranic Calligraphy on Kaabah

(a) Rosettes, Medallions, and Roundels :

The earliest ornaments used were rosettes, medallions, and roundels. These occur as marginal decorations to mark the ends of ayahs and Surahs, or to indicate the ajza, the ashirahs, or sajdah.

Roundels in the Quran 

(b) Ornamental Panels :

Another form of Quranic Ornamentations probably originated in the 9th century. This consists of decorative bands and panels. These appear at the opening of the surahs, or perhaps only to introduce specific surahs chosen for more elaborate decoration. The panels usually contain the title and number of the surah to follow, as well as the number of its verses.

Ornamental Panels

(c) Single Decoration Pages :

In the Quran copies of the 10th century are found the earliest examples of full-page arabesque ate the beginnings and end of the books or chapters. These use a wide variety of motifs for additions, molding, and integration calligraphic designs. Such decorative pages were later to became an expected part of any finely produced manuscript. Beautiful examples of these are displayed in the calligraphy exhibit of the Topkapi Saray Museum in Istanbul.

Single decoration Page

2. Poetry 

Beautiful calligraphy is also found in copies of poetic works. These have not been given the consistent care or the elaborate exercise of writing talent the calligraphers have shown to the Holy Quran. Yet, some beautiful examples can be found, especially in the Iranian and Indian Islamic legacy.

3. Architectural Decoration :

Calligraphy played an im[ratnt role in architectural decoration of every type, in all regions and periods. Passages from the Quran are the most frequent literary material used in these decorations. The designs of beautiful writing may be only pannels, borders, doors, or maybe on the structural elements. They are made up of a variety of materials, used singly or in combination. The most common of these media are bricks, ceramics, craved stucco, carved and painted wood, and stone.

4. Wall Decoration :

The production of calligraphy design for wall decoration has been an art practiced in all Muslim regions and times. In corporating short passages from the Quran, pious saying, the names of God or attributes of God as well as the name of Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.W and the early caliphs have been a favorite subject for such decoration. They are hung on the walls of both domestic and public buildings in the Muslim World. Pieced textiles, paint on paper, embroidery, bamboo, carved ivory, stucco, plaster, shaped metals, ceramics, and even plastics are the popular material for this decoration which are cherished by Muslims everywhere.

5. Numismatics :

Coins have provided instances of decorative calligraphy from the first century of Islam till today. Particularly beautiful examples can be viewed in the books of Miles and People. Some of the coins contain only the necessary information concerning the value and origin of the coin written in a beautiful script. Others include the calligraphic design with the word ''Allah'', a tughra of the ruler issuing the coin, or a pious saying in elaborate script.

6. Religions and Administrative documents:

Given the predilection for beautiful writing, it is not strange that religious and admins documents produced by the Muslims were also executed with great care and decorative skill. The Diwani script is the one most favored for such documents, but titles and headings in thuluth are also common.

7. Single decoration Album Pages :

Around 1500, a fashion the creation of albums containing miniature illustrations, arabesque designs, and calligraphic pages developed in Persia after its introduction from China. It was soon to move to India where the  Mughal emperors further developed this use of calligraphy. 

8. Tughra :

These are decorative signature seal designs created by calligraphers for wealthy patrons or political leaders. Each one of the carriers the name of its owner written in an elaborate combination of thuluth and Diwani script to form an attractive design. The tughra was used not only as a signature for messages and documents but also as emblems for heading imperial edicts. A typical example is shown in Illustration.

9. Ornamental Inscriptions on Small Art Objects:

No accouterment of a public building or individual residence is considered complete without a suitable calligraphic decoration. Whether for public and private use, ceramics bowls or plates, metal vessels, wooden furniture, glass bowls, or lamps, rugs, textile hangings, and garments.

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Glass Making - Enameled And Gilded Glass

 At the same time of the Arab conquest in the 7th century A.D., glass making had flourished in Egypt and western Asia. For more than two thousand years and glassmakers in those regions have been doing business in spite of the dramatic political, social, and religious changes taking place around them. The glassmakers inherited many of their ancestral techniques in the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, including the piercing of glass, the use of the mold, the use of molten glass with tools, and the decoration of molten glass. The manufacture of Islamic glass from the 7th to the 14th century also invented new inventions and was witnessed by the glorious stages, which established its magnitude in producing glass around the world.

While many of the objects may not have been made under a ruler's patronage, they certainly are ''fit for a sultan''.Islamic glass can be better studied according to its handling techniques from unadorned decorative vessels to Moses' glass in pottery, hot, cut, and carved, although ships were manufactured after the 17th century and heavily influenced by Europe.

In the field of Islamic art, glass is a work of art that often rises but is often overlooked by art historians. The 1,000 unknown glassmakers, who travel from Cairo to Delhi, proudly pass on their knowledge from one generation to the next, experimenting with the colors, shapes, techniques, and embellishments of this vast variety. Their outstanding results, from the public to private collections around the world, promote a wide range of knowledge of the art forms of Islamic glass, a worthy legacy to this ancient artwork.

Enameled And Gilded Glass:

The enameled and horizontal glass is the most famous and historically Islamic glass of history. The production of such glass was the specialty of regions controlled by the Ayyubids and the Mamluks in the 13th and 14th centuries. For this decoration, gold and enamels were applied to the glass surface using oil and a brush or reed pen. Because the gilt colors and individual coatings have different chemical properties, different temperatures are required to permanently fix them to the glass. Simultaneous coloring and remodeling can put the ship in regeneration several times and endanger the deformity of its structure, so it is possible that Mamluk glassmakers learn the product when they apply all the colors at once and fix it during a single shot in Kiln without merging.

Gilded Glass

The vast amount of fossil record indicates that such vessels were highly prized and were probably used for special occasions. The sheer number of pieces available, however, suggests that the product was not only court-sponsored but also for commercial purposes. These unpainted areas of these objects and the favors of Mamluk painters and literary enthusiasts make this type of Islamic glass very instructive, helping scholars to establish chronology and delivery.

Enameled and gilded glass developed in the 12th century in the Syrian area and flourished during the final decades of Ayyubids power and the first of Maluk domination in the 13th century. When Cairo became the capital of the empire in the 14th century, stained-glass and stained glass from that time were probably made in Egyptian workshops, rather than in Syria. The late 14th century saw a decline in production, by the early 15th century, decreasing support eventually caused workshops to close. By the end of the 15th century, large-scale glass production had shifted from Europe to Venice, in particular. The combination of economic, political, and artistic elements may have caused the disappearance of stained glass from the Islamic world.

Objects In Islamic Art - Techniques of Early Islamic Art

 Followings are the objects of early Islamic Art.

• Rock-cut crystals.
• Cut and engraved Glass.
• Millefiori
• Stained Glass.
• Etched Glass.
• Cast Glass.
• Tools of Glassmaking.
• The Blowpipe.

Rock-cut Crystals :

Rock crystals ewers are pitchers craved from a single block of rock crystal. They were made by Islamic Fatimid artisans and are considered to be amongst the rarest object in Islamic art. Great skill was required to hollow out the raw rock crystal without breaking it and to carve the delicate, often very shallow, decoration.

Rock cut crystals

Cut and Engraved Glass :

Cold-cut glass became the most prominent art form of decoration in the early Islamic period, especially in the 9th and 10th  centuries. While this lapidary technique is as old as glass making itself, dating well before glassblowing was invented; Roman and Sasanian cut glass provided immediate models. From Egypt to Iran, Islamic cut and engraved decoration took various forms. ranging from complex relief patterns created using mechanically operated wheels and drills to hair width incisions made with a pointed tool.

Cut and Engraved glass

Millefiori :

Taken from the Italian words ''mille'' and ''fiori'' beads using this ancient Venetian technique are aptly named ''a thousand flowers ''. Prior to the term millefiori being used to describe it. This glasswork technique was simply called mosaic. The ancient Romans, Phoenicians, and Alexandrians are thought to have been the originators of this art-form making Itlay the premier glass working center of the world. In the late 13th century Venetian glassmakers were ordered by the Venetian republic to move their foundries to the island of Murano.

                                       

                                        Millefiori 

The millefiori technique was rediscovered in the 8th or 9th century in Mesopotamia and was probably used in the production of objects for the ' Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad or Samarra. A number of surviving bowls and tiles suggest that it was used both for domestic furnishings and interior decoration. Examples such as these show the sophistication and range of Abbasid glassmakers.

Stained Glass :

The glass that has been colored, enameled, painted, or stained, especially by having pigments baked onto its surface or by having various metallic oxides fused into it a used in church windows, decorative lampshades. Stained glass is an art form in which colored glass is cut into shapes and placed into mosaics to form a picture. The glass is held in place by metal strips soldered together to give the stained glass strength and stability. Often, fine details of the scene are painted on the colored glass, which is then heated to bond the paint to the glass, and thereby 'stained'.

Stained Glass

Etched Glass :

It is the result of international and often artistic carrying of the surface of the glass to leave a white, frosted finish. This technique is used to create designs on the glass. Etched glass can be found in a wide variety of decorative contexts, including glass doors and windows, furniture, wine bottles, and serving dishes such as glass platters. There are three ways to create a piece of etched glass: sandblasting, chemical etching, and acid etching.

Cast Glass:

Glass casting is the process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mold where it solidifies.

The process of casting glass in molds was invented in the mid 2nd millennium BC. Although the core-formed method predominated in glass manufacture in the Greek world, casting techniques also played an important role in the development of glass in the 9th to 4th centuries B.C. Cast glass was produced in two basic ways, through the lost-wax method, and with various open molds.

Tools of Glass Makers :

Since the invention of glassblowing in the 1st century B.C., glassmakers have been using the same tools to model, manipulate, and decorate the molten glass. Two mold forms from the medieval Islamic world are the only ones to survive, but the basic technology of nonindustrial glassmaking and the tools employed have not changed.

The blowpipe :

It is an iron or steel tube, usually about five feet long, for blowing the molten glass. Molds are used to impress decorative patterns on the molten glass. Dip molds have the typical form of the conical beaker, but two or three-part hinged molds were also used in the Islamic world.

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Seljuk Architecture - Arts and Architecture

 Seljuk Arts and Architecture in Persia, scarcely recognized as a distinct style before 1930, now comprises a repertoire of about fifty monuments and is increasingly regarded as one of the world's great architectural styles. A number of important monuments have been recorded within the last decade, still, many more come to light, Each discovery reveals new merits in structural inventiveness; double domes, ribs wider, vaults, taller minarets, and in decoration: stucco mihrabs, opulent and expressive overall arabesque networks, and in brick ornamentation patterns and bondings of infinite variety, vigor, and originality.

The power and nobility of Seljuk Arts and Architecture are doubtless best exemplified by the Masjid - i- Jami of Isfahan, one of the greatest buildings in the world. As a magnificent structure in a city chosen to be Persia's capital during widely separated epochs and under a variety of rulers, the Isfahan Jami is not purely Seljuk, but those portions which date from Seljuk times are yet is chief glories.

More than 900 years of Persian architecture revealed in this great mosque 20 distinct structures, varying in date from the 11th century. During its long history, it has been much fought over, repeatedly damaged, reconstructed, and all but ruined.

A four-iwan court is enclosed by arcades and two-story open galleries faced with mosaic faience on buff brick.  A deep iwan, embellished with especially strong faience revetments opens into a spacious domed sanctuary built, as the inscription state, by order of Nizam al Mulk at the beginning of MAli Shah's reign. Some of the earlier buildings are still visible, however, and it's probable that the lower section of this sanctuary itself dates from the late 10h century. The chamber supports a huge dome. The squinches are supported by huge cylindrical piers. The sanctuary is surrounded by arcades and corridors covered by an amazing variety of domical brick vaults. Frequently these vaults ret on columns that vary in date from pre-Seljuk to Safavid period. All of the iwans were rebuilt or redecorated on a Seljuk base, showing that the basic plan of the Jami existed during the Seljuk period.

Aesthetically, the most important unit in the Jami is the small but superlative north dome known as the Gunmbad - i - Kharka, dated 1088 and located at the opposite end of the central axis from the sanctuary. This is perhaps the most perfect dome known. In each corner, four small arched breaks form frames of Slender angle colonettes from the lower squinch extension. From Floor level, these colonettes lead the ee swiftly u to the typical tri-lobed squinch. The squinch itself is enclosed by a larger arch that, together with identical arches along the sidewalls, supports an octagonal ring of 16 shallow panels merged with the base of the dome.

All arch forms, including the dome, are of the same contour and constitute the key element of motif that, beginning in the corners, with successive comprehensive enclose one element within other until their multiplicity is resolved and merged in the dome. The dome is thus a culminating point in a vertically rising stream of force. 

There are some significant features of the building which are easily overlooked. The ceiling of the dome is ornamented by a huge cinquefoil in low relief which is assimilated to a five-pointed star. A section of these motifs penetrates at five spaced intervals from the periphery.

A beautiful little madrassa, the Hedariya is also in Qazvin, today incorporated into a large 19th-century mosque. Perhaps the finest Kufic inscription in relief in all Persia is in its stucco frieze. Its carved stucco mihrab is massively rich. The large Masjid I Jami at Qazvin is impressive by virtue of its serene sanctuary space, capped by a large dome. 

Several important Seljuk mosques, in the style of the Isfahan Jami, survive in relatively good condition: the Friday Mosques at Artisan, Zaware, and Gulpayagan and the shrine of Bayazid at Bistam, a brick minaret. The great Seljuk monuments of central Persia were rivaled by several structures built to the northeast, in Khurasan and the region of the Oxus. Of these, the gigantic RAbat-i-Malek Built before 1078  between Bukhara and Samarkand, is one of the most imposing ruins of the Islamic period. Only part of one wall of the Caravanserai remains. 

Sultan Sanger was buried at Merv mausoleum worthy of a noble and tragic figure. Constructed after his death in 1157 by devoted followers, this tomb is a solemn cubical chamber, about 90 feet high. The interlocking framework of the ribs seen on the interior seems to carry the weight of the dome but, in reality, it may be more decorative than structural. Brick latticework at the corners admitted light to the corridor around the base of the dome, further developing the tomb of Ismail Samanid. This mausoleum is the last, and one of the finest, examples of Seljuk Arts and Architecture.

The Seljuks - Arts And Architecture

 

Seljuk architecture, Nobel and powerful, structurally invented and sophisticated, was neither sudden nor accidental. Rather it was the culminating expressions of a Persian renaissance that had begun in the early tenth century with the Samanids. this renaissance reached its apex under the Seljuks.

Cultural Background :

''Seek ye Knowledge even unto china''  commanded the Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.W and next to prayer, learning was regarded as the most sacred, preferable even to unreasoned piety. The productive stimulation of different, snd often competing, society was steadily enlarging and energizing Islamic culture life and thought. Most significant was the appropriation and preservation of classical Greek culture. Through well-organized translations financed by Caliph Mamun, Greek Philosophy and science Became known in Persia. Galen, Plato, and Aristotle were assiduously studied in all leaders of Persian thoughts.

During the 10th century, however, Persia again produced its own constellation of poets, Philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, physical scientists, historians, and geographers most of them are brilliant, many of unequaled eminence, all with a high degree of originally, boldness, and cultural breadth. In comparison, the same years in Europe were dark indeed.

By far the most important element in the initiation of the native Persian revival was Firdawsi's poem Saha Nama, completed in 1010. One of the epics, it's entered immediately and permanently into the heart of the nation. In all of his 60,000 couplets he used no more than 984 Arabic expressions, the rest were purely Persian. He restored to the Persians the use of renovated magnificent language, created new confidence and patriotism.

The rulers, a number of the true scholars and even poets, rivaled each other in a patronizing poet, artists, and scholars. The honor of being a patron was regarded as the obligation of royalty and a valid claim to status and public esteem. The libraries of time tell the story of a widely shared culture, in which learning was revered. Sahib ibn Abba, vizir of the Buyids and successful ruler of most Persia before his death in 996, had a vast library of certainly more than 2000 volumes. Each mosque had a collection of books. The cadi of Nishapur designated a house with a library especially for the use of visiting scholars and even supplied them with living expenses. One famous library was complied by Abdul-ad dawla installed in a special building in Shiraz.

Both Buyid and Seljuk periods produced some of the most remarkable textiles ever achieved and the pottery, mostly from Nishapur and Samarkand, is among the finest ever made.

The second half of the 9th century saw the appearance of a number of encyclopedias and histories. The learned profession produced a number of great thinkers, components in many areas: Al Razi, physician, chemist, and physicist whose influence spread to make contained much valuable historical and even archeological material. He created a systematic star catalog, tables, and instruments. mathematics and astronomy were vigorously summarized in a Persian encyclopedia of 976, The key of the sciences, A group called the '' Brethren of sincerity'', published valuable commentaries.

Ibn Sina was a born mathematician, poet, and astronomers who made important contributions to physics and was one of the world's first great figures in medicine and his medical treatise were basic texts at Oxford as late as the 17th century.

Omar Khayyam was also an original philosopher and a great mathematician. He recognized 13 different forms of cubic equation in 1074. Al-Ghazali, a man of intellectual power, deep feeling, and utter dedications, was an outstanding poet and philosopher.

Into highly developed civilizations came the conquering Seljuks, an Iran- Turkish stock, Their leaders already familiar with the Persian culture established in Central Asia.

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Taj Mahal - Architecture In India

 Historical Background :

• Taj Mahal is a mausoleum complex built by Shah Jahan (1632-1643) in memory of his favorite wife, Arjumand Banu Begum better known by her title ''Mumtaz Mahal''.
• Construction of the building began shortly after Mumtaz's death.
• Today Taj Mahal is recognized as the most perfect building in the world.

Taj Mahal

Background :

• According to Islamic traditions, a woman that dies during children's birth gains the status of martyr.
• In 1631 Mumtaz passed away during the birth of her 14th child.
• According to legend, with her dying breath, she secures a promise from her husband to built for her, a mausoleum more beautiful than any the world had ever seen.
• 6 months after the death of his wife, Shah Jahan lays the foundation for a memorial near the river Jamna near his Palace in Agra.
• To satisfy his Artistic obsessions, vast quantities of white marble are mined from Rajhastahn and are carried 250 miles to the site of the Taj Mahal.
• The emperor reserves white marble for imperial building only.
• Red stone carted from Dehli.
• 20,000worker who labored over 20 years to build the monument.

Architectural Breakthrough :

• In Indian architecture, the trabeation system was widely used for the construction of temples.
• The Mughal introduce the concept of the arch to India and create very wide interior spaces.
• Although the essential style was Islamic, any of the details are Hindu/Indian.
• The Mughal introduced the use of ceramic tiles and precious stones for inlay work.

Engineering Breakthrough :

• The Taj Mahal was built next to the river Jumna.
• The Mughal Enginner's dug deep wells to below the water surface.
• These wells were filled up with vocals and mortar.
• On top of Well bases, the master builders erected stone columns, linked together by massive arches.
• This engineering innovation has been protecting the Taj Mahal from the currents of the Jumna river to date.

Minarets Optical illusion :

• The minarets of the Taj Mahal built to lean slightly outwards.
• Depending on each other, they look perfectly straight.
• This brings a massive advantage.

Dome :

• Today we can build a dome-like Taj Mahal using steel frames and other materials.
• The master builders of the Taj Mahal had to solve this problem in stone.
• They Laid stone on stone and built up the stone in rings.
• The dome rises layer by layer.
• The mortar between the stones gives its stability.

Design Components :

Minarets :

The tomb of Shah Jaha's own father provides the model for minarets.

Minarets

Corner Turrets:

Shah Jahan great grandfather. Akbar tomb had four corner turrets surrounding the central core.

Pishtaq :

The four Pishtaq is inspired by his grandfather Tomb.

Dome :

The dome is inspired by Ulugh Beg Madrasa in Samarkand.

Inside Dome

Religious Symbolism :

Taj Mahal is the architectural embodiment of this life and the next according to Islamic belief.

The ground plan represents this duality of life and the afterlife.

The complex is split between its tomb garden and mausoleum.

Colour Scheme :

The color scheme of the Taj Mahal is deeply symbolic.

The worldly elements and other buildings are all clad in red stone.

The pure white stands for the Spiritually and faith of the person buried here.

The Garden :

The Garden is the heart of the Taj Mahal.

It is an earthly representation of paradise described in the Quran.

The garden is divided into four squares.

Chahar Bagh

The channels along the paths represent the river of paradise milk, honey, wine, and water mentioned in the Quran.

Where the channels meet, there is a pool.

European Influence:

The Taj Mahal itself demonstrates the link between India and Europe.

Technique and Motifs traveled from Europe to adorn the entire interior of the Taj Mahal.

These mosaics of semi-precious stones are called Pietra dura.

Pietra Dura

This craft was used to decorate precious places during the renaissance.

This technique directly or indirectly traveled from Italy to India.

Unfortunately, no chronicles record the name of the artist who decorated the Taj Mahal.

Burial Chamber :

The coffin seen in the Mausoleum is only a cenotaph an empty monument.

Mumtaz Mahal lies in a secret marble chamber below the Taj Mahal, where she rests undistributed.

Here is the view of the Taj Mahal :

Fatehpur Sikri - Agra - Architecture In India

• Fathepur Sikri is a Palace complex, built by the Mughal Emperor Abar in 1571- 1585 A.D.
• One of the well-known Architecture in India.
• The palace building is located on a hillside about 100 feet [40 m] above the artificial lake.
• Akbar is responsible for the use of residence veneer, which gives the complex its characteristics hue.
• There were two main stages in the construction of this building.
• 1572 to 15757 A.D., when the main building was raised and finished.
• 15757 to 1585, when passage and corridor added to building according to the need of the emperor and his family.
• The complex served as the residence of the emperor for 14 years. in 1585 A.D. following a political and geographical shift of the empire, Akbar and his court satisfied transferred their residence to Lahore.

Architectural Features :

The following are the Architectural features of Fatehpur Sikri, Architecture in India.

1. Market.
2. Shop lined road.
3. Karkhana or workshop.
4. Octagonal Baoli.
5. Hiran Minar.
6. Hathipul or Elephant gate.
7. Daulat kahana (aam o Khas) or Diwan e Khas.
8. Kawabghah.
9. Daftar Khana.
10. Hammam.
11. Courtyard of panch MAhal.
12. Jadh Bai Palace.
13. Raja Birbal house.
14. Serai.
15. Courtyard of Jami mosque.
16. Jami mosque.
17. Tomb of Saikh salim chishti.
18. Tomb of Isa khan.
19. Buland Darwaza.

• It is situated on a long narrow ridge of Redstone that runs southwest to northeast.
• The building inside the complex is rotated 45 degrees.
• It is surrounded by enclosed walls that enclose the irregular place by about 2 miles and 1 mile long.
• The whole complex is spread in the three Plates.
• The mosque complex is located on the uppermost level of the ride and consists of a great mosque. The palace complex is laid out on the two lower platforms, covering 250 m sq.
• The building of the complex can be grouped into two main zones.
• The middle plateau is most private, housing the residential buildings, Birbal palace, Jodh Bai palace, Shahi Bazar, and Mina Bazar.Other buildings such as caravanserai, the Hiran Minar tower, hammam.
• The dominant material used is red stone.
• The building can be divided into two classes, the Religious and the secular.

Jami Mosque :

• The Jami Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri, Architecture in India, was built by Akbar in 1571.
• It covers a rectangular area measuring 542 X 438 and a large yard.
• The mosque follows the standard plan form with the central courtyard.
• The sanctuary facade consists of a large rectangular Pishtaq in the center.
• Above and behind these central features rises a large dome over the central nave.
• Arrange pillared kiosks all along the entire parapet.
• The nave is a square hall entered through three doorway.
• The aisles are accessible by highways from the nave. In the center of each hallway is a small church building, covered with one of the two smaller domes.

Buland Darwaza :

• Buland Darwaza is a gateway built by Akbar about 25 years after the Jami Mosque.
• The gateway is 134' high and 42 steps.
• The structure is 130' wide and 123' deep.
• The facade is embowed by the means of 3 planes comprising a large central face and a lesser one on each side.

Buland Darwaza from Inside

• The central plane is 86' wide and rectangular in shape.
• The smaller planes are in three kevels varied opening at each stage. The main feature of the decorative treatment of the exterior facade is the wide border of the gate.

Tomb of  Salim Chishti :

• It is located in the courtyard of the Jami Masjid at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Originally a sandstone structure, it was transformed into an expensive marble structure.
• The tomb consists of a 24-sided square exterior of the '16-sided chamber', all covered by a lower dome.
• A wide verandah is carried out the outside.
• There are carved brackets all around to support the extremely wides eaves.
• The pillars that make up the porch with their honeycomb capitals.

Jodh Bai Palace :

• Jodh Bai palace is a structure built as the house of the principle, Queen.
• Mariam was a Hindu, and the palace in all its construction and all its ornamentations belongs to the Hindu and Jamia style of Mariam's native country, Rajputra, It even contains a Hindu temple.
• The palace in plan measure 215' X 320', consisting of a large central courtyard.
• To the left of the door is a small guardhouse.
• The external hall is 32' high plan.
• The outer part of the wall is disturbed only three times, once by the east gatehouse, the Pavillion hanging from the Hawa Mahal.
• One of the most interesting features is the Hawa Mahal, Here the ladies enjoy the cool breeze and the view of the lake.

Birbal's House :

• Raja Birbal was a Barhaman, who came to Akbar's court at the beginning of his reign.
• From the construction, it would appear that h the Hindu were the architects.
• Birbal's house s a two-story structure.
• The ground story is made up of two rooms and an open terrace.
• The upper rooms are covered with cupolas while the galleries have a pyramidal roof.

Diwan-i- Khas :

• The Diwan-i-Khas or a hall of a private audience is the most distinctive of the administration building at the Fatehpur, Architecture In India.
• It is not a large structure, Externally, the structure is rectangular in plan with two-story.
• The interior arrangement is quite unique.
• From the platform, a stone bridge radiates along each diagonal of the hall to connect with hanging galleries that surrounded its upper portion.
• The idea behind the arrangement is that the emperor would occupy the central position.

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Agra Fort - Architecture In India

 Historical Background :

• The fort constructed by Akbar in 1565-1573. 
• The other name of the fort is Lal Qila or Red fort.
• It is one of the best Architecture in India.
• Akbar is responsible for the use of a red stone veneer, which gives the complex its characteristics hue.
• There were more than five hundred masonry buildings, many have originally been held with the fort complex.

Agra Fort

• These buildings inspired by the architecture of Gujrat and Bengal featured trabeated construction and Hindu decorations motifs.
• After Akbar, his Grandson Shahjahan carried out the most extensive building projects with the complex including the Diwan-i' Aam.
• Between 1628-1637 A.D Shahjahan rebuilt the three main places courtyard and introduced white marble and polish stucco to the fort's red stone material palette
• The fort remained the main imperial residence until 1648 A.D when Shahjahan shifted his court to Dehli.
• Its place in Mughal history continued when Aurangzeb took the throne from Jahan in 1658 A.D.

Agra Fort Castle

Architectural Features :

• Hathi Pul / Elephant gate.
• Amar Singh gate and Akbari gate which together from the southern gate.
• Anguri bagh ( grapes grden ).
• Diwan -i'Aam ( Hall of Public Audience).
• Shah Burj (royal tower).
• Dulat khana.
• Diwan -I Khas (hall of private audience).
• Aram Ghar (sleeping chamber).
• Moti Masjid.
• Akbari Mahal
• Jahangir Mahal.
• Khas Mahal.
• Imperial Hamam.
• Dressed red stone walls about 21 m high with a circumference of 2.5 km, enclose the fort.
• The walls about the Jamna river to the east with a straight line, 725 m in length, then form an irregular are protected by a moat, towards the west.

Main Gate :

• There are two main gates complexes in the fort both protected by barbicans.
• Each gate comprises two gates. The inner gate penetrates Akbar's older wall and the outer gate punctures Aurangzeb's outer wall.

Western Gate :

• On the west-facing of the city of Agra, The Dehli gate leads to the inner hatipul, Originally the main public entrance to the fort.
• From south of the hatipul, a 226 m long market extends large Diwan-i'Aam courtyard.

Southern Gate :

• The southern gate, originally called Akbari Darwaza, was renamed the gate of Amar Singh by the British.
• The southern gate which includes the outer Amar Singh gate followed by the Akbari gate was originally used by the imperial family and is now the public entrance into the fort complex.
• It has three consecutive entrance gateway built at the right angle to each other.
• A simple ogee arched outer gate at the end of the drawbridge puncturasAurangzeb's wall.
• This gate leads to the courtyard, about 45 m east-west and 25 m north-south, where the 3rd and final gate punctuate through the northern wall.
• Tall bastions articulated gateway here.
• Geometric multi-colored tile patterns are visible on the lower portion of bastions while the upper niches are clad in red sandstone.
• Space planning Layout :
• In the original layout of the fort, the east-west axis defined the public route, while the north-south axis formed the imperial or residential route, and both routes conveyed at the courtyard of Diwan-i Aam.
• Along the residential axis, the southernmost courtyard complex has survived from the Akbar region. these include Akbari Mahal and Jahangir Mahal.
• To the north of the Jahangir Mahal are the structures of the place known as Anguri Mahal, the Khas Mahal, and Diwan-i Khas.
• In 1628 and 1637 Shahjahan reconstructed all these palaces as well as the courtyard to Diwan-i A'am.

Diwan-i'Am and Diwan-i ' Khas :

• The diwan-i'Aam is organized like a Mughal courtyard mosque, with the niche in the Qibla wall replaced by Emporer Jhaorka.

Diwan-i'Aam

• The series of palaces and courtyards are located southeast of Diwan-i Aam along the river.
• All of these buildings constructed by Shah Jahan, which the Jahangiri MAhal and the Akbari Mahal and Anguri bagh are the original places from the Akbar region.
• The Diwan -I Khas now called the Machi Bharan (fish house), includes a courtyard measuring a 40 m east-west and 45 m north-south.

Diwan -I Khas

Shah Burj :

• To the east of Diwan-i Khas, the shah Burj project towards the river from one of the Akbar's red stone bastions.

Shah Burj

• A white marble structure with an arcaded front towards the river and more solid edges, it is decorating with small shallow niches.
• The chattri features alternating red stone and white marble panels with opening and jalis.

Anguri Bagh :

• To the south of the Shah Burj is the Anguri Bagh built by Shah Jahan in 1636 A.D
• The garden measures 40 m east-west and 45m north-south.
• Narrow soluble stories buildings border it on the north, south, and west and its eastern edge contains the three marble structure of the Khas Mahal.
• Designed as a traditional rectangular char bagh.
• The double stories of a building are a succession of open pillared verandas and small enclosed rooms.
• The upper story has a continuous balcony supported on stone brackets and protected by a Redstone Jali parapet.
• These buildings are considered to have been the Zanana, or residence of Imperial women.

Akbari And Jahangri Mahal :

• South of Anguri Bagh is the Akbari Mahal, built by its namesake.
• The better preserved Jhangri Mahal is located to its south.

Inside the Mahal

• Built by Akbar in 1570 A.D, the Jhanagir Mahal is the only one of Akbar's palace construction to survive completely intact.

Interior Marble Inlay

Styles and Influences :

• Some decorative inlay work is present in the buildings from Akbari time.
• Shah Jahani architecture within the complex display a profusion of pietra dura, inlay work set into the white marble.

Pietra Dura

• The articulation is very similar to that found in the Taj Mahal, and it is possible that the same craftsman, was employed in both projects.

Inlay Work in Fort

• The original aesthetic of the fortress as defined by Akbar was Indo-Islamic influenced by the architecture of Gujrat and Bengal.
• The result was truly Mughal architecture, a hybrid of geometric decoration and Hindu motifs.

Here is the Agra fort :

Woodwork Techniques - Applied In Islamic Architecture

 There are different kinds of Woodwork Techniques which are applied in Islamic Arts and Architecture in different periods.

Carving :

Carving is one of the most used Woodwork Techniques in Islamic Architecture. In the method of carving, a pointed chisel works out decoration in raised form by carving the surface of the wood. Because of the Perishability of wood, it is more often found as an embellishment inside the building. 

Interior wood carvings of the Islamic monuments fall into three categories: Structural element, partitions, and fixtures. The first includes such integral parts of the structure as ceilings, beams, and wall or ceiling brackets. Partitions as a category of architectural woodworking include all those wooden additions which were used to cover openings, to screen areas, or to divide interior space, The most important category for the use of wood carving in Islamic Buildings includes such permanently fixed installations as minbar or pulpit from which the imam delivers his Khutbah during the Friday congregational prayer.

Latticework :

Latticework is one of the woodwork Techniques. It is a piece of material made by crossing lathes over and under each other to create a grid-like pattern. Traditionally, latticework is made of wood but it can also be made with plastic, iron, plaster, and other materials. The lattice is used in many cultures for a variety of decorative and functional purposes.

One common use of latticework is on the privacy screen. The openings in the lattice allow light and air through, less sensitive to climatic conditions where tables are allowed to allow light and air to pass through, which would be worse in a climate where a completely fenced area could be blocked. The lathes network prevents people from seeing inside the letter, allowing for privacy in the area surrounded by lattice activity. Latticework work can be seen in the surrounding buildings and yards, and it is used for things like the installation of windows so that people can enjoy the cool air while still feeling private.

Inlaying :

In this method of the Woodwork Techniques, which is divided as inlaying of the mother of pearl and inlying of wood, the decorative design is drawn on the finished surface by a pointed pencil and the proper places of the design are engraved and then inlaid with mother of pearl, tortoiseshell or ivory. In another kind named ''Damascus work '', the pieces of mother of pearl are surrounded by thin metalwork.

Woodworks in Early Islamic Architecture:

Various woodworks unearthed in the central Asian tumuli and Pazyrk excavations have revealed that Turks were interested in this subject since ancient times. In Islamic art and especially in Omayyad and Abbasid wood works, we find a tendency to look for a new style. The Syrian and Egyptian stone reliefs of the 10th to 13th centuries had influenced the Fatimid woodworks and decorations of acanthus and vine leaves peculiar to the Syrian region were widely used. For example, the stone reliefs on the front of Meshatta palace was revived with nuances in the Omayyad and Abbasid works, was a favorite decoration of this period. The most famous example of Omaayd woodwork is the multi-pieced pulpit of the Qayrawan Mosque made in the 11th century and presently kept in the Cairo museum, and the woodworks in the El hakim mosque reveal the most interesting example of Islamic woodworks.

The magnificent gate displayed in the metropolitan museum and the woodworks displayed in the Cairo Museum, prove that the Fatimid decorations were oriented toward animal motifs in later periods. These decorations are thought to be relative to native art, including hunting scenes, symmetrical groups of birds of animals. this style later influenced the mamluk art and decoration with enriched with all over design. very few examples of Persia woodwork proceeding the Seljuk period have survived until the present day. some wood inscribed with Kufic writing is found in  Tashkent and Samarkand Museums and in private collections. Mongolian woodworks of the 13th century are also very rare. wooden door with Kufic inscription show grat similarities with stone decorations in the architecture of the period.

The Seljuk woodworks :

Seljuk considered woodworks very important and they have produced many works of art as pulpits, reading desks, chests of drawers in addition to architectural elements ornamenting buildings. Geometrical forms and plant motifs were often used in Seljuk woodworks where carving and latticework were widely applied. The ornaments were often raised and the compositions were completed with Roman-style borders. The motifs of peacocks, king Solomons seal, and cypress trees were largely used in Seljuk woodworks in Anatolia. The Seljuk woodworks reveal itself on the wooden sarcophagi. The coffin over Mevlana's grave in the Konya Mevlana Tomb is decorated with embellishments characteristics of the age and is covered all over with lyrics poems and couplets.

The Ottoman's woodworks :

The Seljuk woodworks influenced the early ottoman wood works of the 14th and 15th centuries and various works were started to be made by new techniques and with new decorative elements. Besides carving and lattice-work, the dovetail method was widely used and enriched woodworks were made also with the addition of auxiliary elements such as mother of pearls, tortoise shells, and ivory. Floral motifs were often used in addition to Rumi compositions. Beginning with the 16th century, the Rumi decoration on the woodworks gained a much more complex appearance by uniting with the different floral patterns found in the similarly decorated tiles. Although the forms used in the 16th-century woodworks were continued during the 17th century, new patterns were decorated in decorations.

The most renowned of these are the floral motifs that have lost their original forms in a tendency of stylization. Plainness was gradually left and a richer embellishment replaced it.

The Turkish woodworks have influenced architecture, presenting fine examples in old Turkish houses as well as the wooden Afyon Grand Mosque, Sirvirhsar Grand mosque, Beysehir Esrefoglu Mosque. Especially the ceilings of rooms, the shelved niches, and cupboard doors have been fastidiously worked.

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