Art of ottoman Empire - Before & After 1600 BC

 

Before 1600 BC

At its inception in the early fourteenth century, the Osmanli or Ottoman Empire was one of many empires that emerged as a result of the dissolution of the Seljuq sultanate in Anatolia and subsequent instability caused by the Mongol empire. The dictatorial Ottoman Empire, bordering the Islamic world, gradually absorbed the Byzantine territories of Anatolia and the Balkans. In 1453, this expansion led to the Ottoman ban on Constantinople, the capital of Eastern Christendom. With the defeat of the Mamluk empire in 1517, the Ottomans ruled over the most powerful empire in the Islamic world. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the continued military success in the region from Central Europe to the Indian Ocean gave the Ottomans the status of world power.

In the arts, there is a shortage of material that existed from the earliest Ottoman period, but it is clear from the surviving buildings that Byzantine, Mamluk, and Persian cultures combined to form the vocabulary of Ottoman art. Significant changes have taken place with the establishment of new capital in the Byzantine region of Constantinople. After the victory, Hagia Sophia, a large Byzantine church, was converted to Islam and became a source of encouragement to Ottoman architects. Mehmet II ) regarded the city as the center of his growing empire and embarked on a grand reconstruction program. He sent two palaces (The Old and the New, later Topkapi, palaces) and a Muslim church (Mehmetiye, which later became the Fatih complex), which included religious, educational, social, and commercial activities. In his commissions, Mehmet drew Turkish, Persian, and Byzantine artistic expressions.  He was interested in development in western Europe. Ottoman, Iranian, and European artists and scholars flocked to Mehmet's courtroom, making him one of the greatest Renaissance emperors of his time.

Under Mehmet's successors, his eclectic style, reflecting a mixed Ottoman heritage, was gradually incorporated into Ottoman art vocabulary. Further expansion of the area brought some additions to this vocabulary. Most importantly, the defeat of the Safavids in the war in eastern Anatolia (1514) and the addition of the Mamluks in Syria, Egypt, and the Holy Cities of Islam (Mecca and Medina) in the Ottoman Empire under Selim I, led to an increase in the presence of Iranian and Arab artists and scholars in the Ottoman court.

Süleyman's reign often referred to as the "Golden Age," was characterized by expansion, trade, and economic growth, as well as a cultural and artistic activity. Süleyman's years saw the rise of Ottoman art and culture. Among the major achievements of this period were the temples and religious buildings built by Sinan, one of the most famous Muslim architects. Hundreds of public buildings were designed and built throughout the Ottoman Empire, contributing to the spread of Ottoman culture. In the period following Süleyman's death, construction and artwork resumed under the support of the royal family and the ruling class. Commissions continue outside the state capital, with many sacred foundations established throughout the state.

By the end of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, progress was being made in all fields of art, where architecture, calligraphy, hand painting, textiles, and pottery were of paramount importance. Apart from Istanbul, various cities in the provinces are also considered major centers of the arts and commerce: Znik was famous for its pottery, Bursa for silk and textiles, Cairo for carpet production, and Baghdad for its art. Ottoman observation has had a profound effect on the various regions under its control. Aside from local diversity, the legacy of 16th-century Ottoman art is still evident in monuments from the Balkans to the Caucasus, from Algeria to Baghdad, and the Crimea to Yemen, including signature objects such as celestial houses, small pencils - standing minarets, and standing courts with home arches.

After 1600 BC :

At the beginning of the seventeenth century, both the production of Ottoman literature and architecture remained traditional. The court scriptorium went on to publish its own series of used documents - biographies, travel accounts, genealogies, and geographical locations - many of which were displayed or illuminated. The Ahmet I Mosque in Istanbul (1609-16), also known as the "Blue Mosque" due to the internal system of tiles, continues in the vocabulary of Sinan's great artist (c. 1500-1588).

Later in the century, the weak Ottoman economy began to undermine the arts. The influx of gold and silver from the New World has caused inflation and the treasury to dwindle without a victory in the war and the spoils to fill the coffers. The Sultans were forced to reduce the number of artists hired in Nakkaşhane (royal scriptorium) to ten from over 120 during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66), and for many years did not increase the prices they paid for pottery, paintings, and carpets. It has been more profitable for artists to produce open market items than to be tied to workshops in low-paying courts, and sultans had to pass orders forcing them to complete state commissions. One of the arts that maintained a high level of quality was calligraphy. Hafiz Osman was the ruler of this period, a teacher of Sultan Mustafa II  and his son, Sultan Ahmet III.

Under Ahmet III art has been revived. He built a new library at Topkapi Palace and authorized the Surname (Book of Festivals, ca. 1720, Topkapi A.3593), recording the circumcision of his four sons as recorded by the poet Vehbi. These paintings depict ceremonies and processions on the streets of Istanbul and were completed under the direction of the artist Levni (who died in 1732), whose work is known from a set of photographs collected in ‘vellum’ (Topkapi H.2164). While his style was traditional, other artists of his time were deeply influenced by European literature and recordings that began to spread throughout the Ottoman world.

Ahmet's reign is also known as the Tulip Age. The popularity of this flower is reflected in the new floral decoration that has changed the saz style of decorating with beaded leaves and cloud belts that have reflected Ottoman art for many years, and are found in fabrics, light, and decorative architecture. The construction of this period is shown in a large fountain built by Ahmet III outside the gate overlooking the Topkapi palace. Ambassadors sent to Paris and Vienna brought other changes in their interpretation of the Baroque buildings in Versailles and Fontainebleau, but many Baroque-inspired palaces built during Ahmet's reign were destroyed by a revolt that forced him to resign in 1730. The first building to survive was the Nuru Osmaniye Mosque (1748-55), which was started by Mahmud I and completed by Osman III. Its glorious decoration, beautiful composition, and carvings of vegetables are a hallmark of a style that dates back to the nineteenth century.

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Architecture of Ottoman

 

The great tradition of Ottoman architecture, founded in the 16th century, was derived from two main sources. One was the complex development of new types of construction that took place throughout Anatolia, especially in Manisa, Iznik, Bursa, and Selçuk in the 14th and early 15th centuries. In addition to the usual mosques, mausoleums, and madrasahs, many buildings called tekke were built to houses and other holy men living together. Itkeke was usually assembled in a mosque or cemetery. The whole complex at that time was called külliye. All these buildings continued to build a central, centralized structure, built by the Seljuqs in Anatolia. Another source of Ottoman architecture is Christian art. Byzantine culture, especially as it was incorporated into Hagia Sophia, became a major source of encouragement. Byzantine influence comes from elements such as stones and bricks used together or in the use of circular dome construction. Also influential in the arts were the early Ottoman allies they had with Italy. Thus, in a number of military bases in Bursa, Tur., There is a similarity in style to the exterior design and windows, gates, and roof elements found in Italian architecture. A distinctive feature of Ottoman architecture is that it originated in Islamic and European cultures and, therefore, was part of both.

The apogee of the Ottoman architecture was found in a large series of külliyes and the still dominant mosques in Istanbul: Fatih külliye (1463-70), Bayezid Mosque (after 1491), Selim Mosque (1522), Sehzade külliye (1548), and Süleyman külliye (after 1550). Sehzade and Süleyman külliyes were built by Sinan, a great Ottoman architect, whose masterpiece is the Selim Mosque in Edirne, Tur. (1569-75). All of these structures show complete clarity and logic in planning and ascent; every part is considered in relation to everything, and each element of construction has acquired a sequential function incomplete formation. Any unnecessary items have been removed. This ease of design in the late 15th and 16th centuries is often the result of the fact that the Sinan and many Ottoman builders were first trained as military engineers. Everything in these buildings was under a beautiful central dome. The low-rise type of downhill, vaults, and ascending ridges lead the eye up and down the outside of the building. Minarets, thin and bulky, incorporate an external structure, while the open space of the surrounding courts prevents the building from being swallowed up by the surrounding city. This Ottoman art is seen as the ultimate culmination of two great traditions: the artistic and aesthetic tradition that has been native to Istanbul since the founding of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and another Islamic tradition of the empire up to the 10th century.

While mosques and külliyes are the most important monuments of Ottoman architecture, important landmarks are erected: baths, caravans, and especially the great palace of Topkapi Saray in Istanbul, where 300 years of royalty are kept in its beautiful communities, halls, and fountains.

The Culture of Ottoman Empire

Ottoman culture flourished for centuries as the Turks' rulers suckled, transformed, and transformed the various indigenous cultures of the conquered lands and their peoples. There was a strong influence on the customs and languages ​​of Muslim communities, especially the Arabs, while Persian culture had a profound effect on the Persians of the Seljuq Turks, who were pre-Ottoman. Without further ado, the Ottoman Empire, like its predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, was thoroughly investigated by their culture, language, customs, and traditions, and therefore, the empire was described as a Persian empire. Throughout its history, the Turkish Empire had a large population of Orthodox, Armenian, Jewish, and Assyrian subjects, who were allowed to govern themselves under a united government. The Ottomans and their distinct cultures enrich those of the Ottoman Empire.

Literature:

Poetry :

Like all other forms of Turkish art, poetry produced by the Ottoman court circle has had a powerful influence from ancient Persian cultures; Ghazal) was used.

In the 19th century and during the conversion of the Tanzimat, the influence of Turkish folklore, up to that point, in particular, began to emerge in Turkish poetry, and there was a growing influence on European literature; there has been a corresponding decline in ancient court poems. Tevfik Fikret, born in 1867, is often regarded as the inventor of modern Turkish poetry.

Prose:

Prior to the 19th century, Ottoman prose was not only true but much more advanced than Ottoman poetry, in part because most of it followed the original rules of the Arab rhymed prose (Saj '). However, many genres - travelogue, political literature, and biography - were now available.

From the 19th century onward, the growing influence of European novels, especially those of the French novel, began to be felt. Şemsettin Sami's book Taaşuk-u Tal'at ve Fitnat, widely regarded as Turkey's first novel, was published in 1872; other Ottoman prose writers were Ahmet Mithat and Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil.

Architecture :

The Ottoman architecture was an integral part of the Iranian-influenced Seljuk architecture, as reflected in the Konya architecture, the Mamluk architecture, and the Byzantine architecture; reached its greatest development in major public buildings, such as mosques and caravans, in the 16th century.

A prominent figure in this field, the 16th-century designer and engineer Marimar Sinan, was a Muslim convert from Armenia who had knowledge of the Janissaries. One of his students, Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, designed the 17th-century Blue Mosque, which is considered to be the last major construction of ancient Ottoman architecture.

Decorative Arts :

Calligraphy :

Calligraphy had a respectable culture in the Ottomans, whose traditions were shaped by the work of the Abbasid calligrapher Yaqut al-Musta'simi of Baghdad, whose influence spread throughout the Muslim world, al-Musta'simi himself who was of Anatolian descent.

Diwani's script is a distinctive and vivid Ottoman style of Arabic calligraphy dating back to the 16th and early 17th centuries. Founded by Husam Roumi, it culminated in a major development under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520-66). The most decorative script is divided by the complexity of the line and the clear definition of the letters in the words. Other forms include the flowing, circular Nashki text, founded by the 10th Abbasid calligrapher Ali Muhammad ibn Muqlah, and Ta'liq, based on the Persian Nastalīq style.

Well-known Ottoman calligraphers include Seyid Kasim Gubari, Şeyh Hamdullah, Ahmed Karahisari, and Hâfiz Osma.

Miniatures :

The Ottoman culture of miniature painting, handwriting, or use of dedicated albums was largely influenced by Persian art form, although it also incorporated elements of Byzantine culture into lighting and painting.

Carpet-weaving and textile arts :

The art of weaving carpets was very important in the Ottoman Empire, carpets were very important as decorative items, rich in religious symbols, and so on, and as a practical consideration, as was the custom to remove shoes from the living space.  The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic traditions of central Asia and eventually spread to communities living in Anatolia. The Turks use patterned carpets, magazines, and creams not only on the floor of the room but also as hanging on walls and doors, where they provide additional installation. And they were often donated to the churches of the temples, where they usually collected their large collections

Jewelry :

The Ottoman Empire was known for the quality of its gold and silver carpenters, and especially for the jewelry, they produced. Jewelry was especially important when it came to weddings, such as wedding invitations. Silver was the standard used, and gold was reserved for high-quality pieces; designs often depicted complex work and included Persian and Byzantine paintings. Progress in construction reflected the Ottoman court's interest in the Persian Safavid art, which, for example, became influential after the defeat of Ottoman Ismail I after the Chaldiran war in 1514.  In the rural areas of the Empire, jewelry was simple and often included gold coins, but the formation of Constantinople spread throughout the Ottoman Empire and was reflected in the Egyptian and North African metals.

Introduction To Ottoman Empire - Arts And Architecture

Brief Introduction :

Forced to evacuate their homes on the plains of Asia by the Mongols, the migrating Turkish tribes converted to Islam during the eighth and ninth centuries. By the tenth century, one of the Turkish tribes, the Seljuks, had become a major power in the Islamic world and embraced a stable life that included Islamic teaching, middle class, and taxation. However, many other Turkish groups remained nomadic and, following the Blood tradition, sought to conquer the Islamic world and gain the spoils of war. This led to a confrontation with the Seljuks in Teljuk, and to appease the nomadic tribes, the Seljuks directed them to the eastern part of the Byzantine Empire, Anatolia. The nation known as the Ottomans emerged from one of the small thieves established in northwestern Anatolia after 1071. The monarchy was named after Osman Gazi (1259-1326), who began expanding his empire into the Byzantine Empire in Asia Minor and moved to Bursa in 1326.

The Empire :

A political and local organization controlled by the Ottoman Turks. Their empire was centered in modern-day Turkey and increased its influence in southeastern Europe and the Middle East. Europe was only able to withstand their progress for a while: a change came at the Battle of Varna in 1444 when the European Union failed to stop Turkey's progress. Only Constantinople (Istanbul) occupied Byzantine territory, and its defeat in 1453 seemed inevitable. The Turks regained control of Anatolia and southeastern Europe, which lasted until the early 20th century.

Although the Ottoman Empire could not be considered a simultaneous European empire, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire had a profound impact on a continent already plagued by the tragedies of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the Ottoman Turks must, therefore, be considered in any European study by the end. of the Middle Ages. The simplicity of the Ottoman Empire gained from military victory led Western Europeans to fear that the continued success of the Ottoman Empire would bring down Western political and social infrastructure and bring about the fall of Christendom. Such a great threat could not be ignored and the Europeans invaded the Ottoman army in 1366, 1396, and 1444, but to no avail. The Ottomans continued to conquer new territories.

One of the many ethnic groups in Turkey that migrated from the plateau of central Asia, the Ottomans were originally nomadic peoples who followed the ancient shamanistic religion. Contact with various stable people led to the introduction of Islam and under the influence of Islam, the Turks acquired their greatest fighting tradition, that of the bloodthirsty warrior. Well-trained and highly skilled bloodthirsty heroes strive to conquer this believer, gain land and riches in it.

While the bloodthirsty warriors fought for Islam, the largest military property in the Ottoman Empire was a permanent paid army of Christian soldiers, the Janissaries. Originally created in 1330 by Orhan Gazi, the janissaries were Christian captives from conquered lands. Taught in Islam and trained as a soldier, court officials were forced to pay an annual tribute to the military. To meet the challenges of the bloodthirsty nobleman, Murad I (1319-1389) turned a new army into a Sultan's army. They were rewarded for their loyalty to the newly acquired land grants, and the magistrates soon rose to fill important administrative offices of the Ottoman Empire.

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire, political parties within Byzantium used Turkish Turks and military commanders as mercenaries in their war for supremacy. In the 1340's, an invasion of the Ottoman Empire led to the overthrow of the Ottoman Empire in Thrace on the northern border of the Byzantine Empire. The defeat of Thrace provided the Ottomans with a place in Europe where the next campaigns for the Balkans and Greece were established and Adrianople (Edirne) became the Ottoman capital in 1366. In the next century, the Ottomans formed the empire that took Anatolia again and again. large parts of Byzantine areas in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor.

The expansion of the Turkish Empire to Europe was in full swing in the late 14th century. Gallipoli was defeated in 1354 and a large army was defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396. The tragedy was so great that Western troops were reluctant to start a new campaign against the Turks. The emergence of Tatars under Tamerlane in the early fifteenth century temporarily delayed Turkey's development but the Ottomans soon resumed invading Byzantium and Eastern Europe. Hungarian and Polish troops were assassinated in Varna in 1444 by Murad II and the Ottoman conquest was not stopped during the reign of his son, Mehmed II Conqueror (1432-1481).

Constantinople itself was captured in 1453, sending a shocking wave across Europe, and its name was changed to Istanbul. With the fall of Byzantium, a wave of Byzantine refugees fled to the West West, carrying ancient and Hellenistic knowledge that gave added impetus to the tense character of the Renaissance.

Athens fell in 1456 and Belgrade narrowly escaped captivity during the Hungarian-led poor Janos Hunyadi's siege that same year, however, Serbia, Bosnia, Wallachia, and the Crimean Cantate were all under the Ottoman rule in 1478. The Turks demanded that the Black Sea and the northern Aegean and that many trade routes be closed when European ships were shipped. The Islamic threat was even greater when the Ottoman beachhead was established in Otranto, Italy, in 1480.

Although the Turkish presence in Italy was short-lived, it seemed that Rome itself should fall into the hands of the Muslims. By 1529, the Ottomans had invaded the Danube and besieged Vienna. The siege was unsuccessful and the Turks began to retreat. Although the Ottomans continued to cause panic during the 16th century, internal strife began to undermine the once-mighty military power of the Ottoman Empire. The outcome of the battles was over and the Europeans began to gain points for the Turks' victory.

Despite the military success of the expansion of their territory, there were still organizational and governmental problems within the Ottoman Empire. Murad II attempted to limit the influence of the nobility and blood by elevating slaves and janissaries to positions of responsibility. These rulers came to give another voice to that of the nobles and, as a result, Murad II and successive Sultans were able to play one team against another, a feature that would suit the Ottoman Empire. The power of the janissaries' rulers often overshadowed the weak sultan and the elite army occasionally acted as "king's servants".

Another weakness was that primogeniture was not used in Islam and that the transfer of power from the deceased to his son was often opposed. When the Sultan died without a male heir or left several sons, the succession was violently opposed. In the first instance, to prevent further controversy, all male relatives of the newly crowned sultan were assassinated. Later, however, former rivals were arrested for life. Some historians have noted that this policy of imprisonment contributed to the decline of the Ottoman Empire as mentally and politically unstable individuals were released from prison and placed on the throne. However, in addition to the usual succession issues, the Ottoman Empire was able to produce effective leaders by the end of the Middle Ages and a comprehensive government policy was developed.

Despite the difficulties of succession and administrative control, the Ottomans had many advantages that contributed to their success, the great wealth of the State being the most valuable asset. As the Ottoman Empire grew, it gained control of trade routes to the East, and many European powers, such as Venice and Genoa, paid exorbitant fees to access these routes.

Although the brutality of the "Infidel Turk" brought fear into the hearts of all Christians toward the end of the Middle Ages, the Ottomans generally allowed religious groups to continue their practice in the conquered lands. They also tend to maintain established institutions and, in many cases, allow for the co-existence of racial and religious law codes. Their administrative and government systems were well developed and very efficient and many countries under Ottoman rule were well-governed during this time.

The Great Ottoman Architect - Mimar Sinan

Background :

Mimar Koca Sinan, the ''Great Architect Sinan'', was born in Anatolia, Turkey in 1489, he died in Istanbul in 1588. In general, think of him as the greatest Ottoman architect, Sinan's career spanned 50 years since he was appointed chief architect by an Ottoman court by Sultan Suleyman I in 1539. His great mosques are the representative image of Turkish Ottoman architecture.

During his long career, Sinan built hundreds of buildings including temples, palaces, palaces, churches, tombs, schools, madrassahs, caravanserais, fountains, canals, and hospitals.

The Heritage of Sinan :

Sinan's training at the Janissary Corps and his many connections to construction enhanced his vision and enhanced his skills. His travels with an army traversing a vast area of ​​the country from the Mediterranean Basin from Anatolia to Italy.

Sinan was the first employed by Hurrem, the wife of Sultan Suleman I, to construct a Kulliye and a public bath. The Kulliye was a building complex consisting of a mosque, a hospital, a school, and a public kitchen.  

Later, a mihrimah, Suleyman's daughter commissioned him to build adjoining churches in the Uskudar and Edirnekapi districts of Istanbul. Sinan was first commissioned by Suleyman I himself, it was the construction of Sehzade Cami built in memory of his first son, Sehzade Mehmed who died young.

Sinan historian Sai Mustafa Celebi, who was a friend of his, listed 343 buildings. During this long career, Sinan served three Sultans, Suleyman I, Selim II, and Murat III. His works include, Khorsow Pasha Mosque in Aleppo, Sultan Suleyman's Mosque in Damascus, AL-Haram AL Shareef in Al-Quds and Sultan Suleyman's school in Makkah, Mosque of Mehmed Pasha in Sofia and Herzegovina, Mustapha Pasha's Mosque of Ofen and the palace of Mehmed Pasha in Sarajevo.

The Mosque of Khorsow Pasha in Aleppo

The Mosque of Sultan Suleyman in Damascus

The dome of AL-Haram AL Shareef in Al-Quds

Early in his career as an architect, Sinan had to contend with traditionally established art. His training as a Military engineer led him to draw closer to architecture from a visual standpoint, rather than from theoretical.

By the time Sinan died, the Classical Ottoman Architecture had reached its climax. No follower was given enough to improve the structure of the Mosque and further developed it. Her student reverted to previous models, such as the Sehzade mosque,. The establishment ended, and it began to decline.